Ingcamango yokumisela igunya likarhulumente iqaliswe ngokuphawulekayo kwiinkulungwane ngeenkulungwane, ixokelelwano zenkqubo yedemokhrasi yale mihla. Ukusuka kwiqela elinemvukelo elanyanzela uKumkani uJohn ukuba atywine iMagna Carta ngo1215 ukuya kwingxoxo eqhubekayo emalunga nokuzimela kwamanani omntu, umzabalazo wokunyanzela igunya lorhulumente nokukhusela inkululeko yabantu kusengumxholo ochaza imbali yezobupolitika. Eli nqaku libonisa olo hambo, lihlola amaxwebhu abalulekileyo, iingcukubhede, ienguqulelo, kunye nentsebenziswano ezakha izingqinela, umthetho, kunye nolawulo lomthetho, kunye namalungelo abantu alawula ulawulo lwedemokhrasi namhlanje.

IMagna Carta: Isiseko Senkululeko

Ityikitywe eRunnymede ngoJuni 1215, iMagna Carta yayingesosenzo sobuGawulayo kodwa yayiyisivumelwano soxolo esiqhelekileyo phakathi kokumkani ongathandwayo kunye neengqwele zakhe ezinemvukelo. Kodwa imigaqo yayo yavakala ngaphaya kwaloo mongo ukhawulezileyo. Okulusizi kukuba, yafumanisa ukuba lo kumkani wayengengaphezu komthetho ````ingcamango yenguquko yexesha lolawulo olupheleleyo.' u-Celas 39 no-40 kumthetho wokuqala wavakalisa ukuba akukho mntu okhululekileyo onokuthi angovalelwa, agxothwe, agxothwe, okanye agxothwe ngaphandle komgwebo ontanga bakhe okanye umthetho welizwe. Oku kwatyala iimbewu zenkqubo efunekayo kunye ne-habeaspus.

Nangona uKumkani John wakhawuleza wayilahla iTshado-mvume noPopu wayilahla, iMagna Carta yaphinda yabekwa phantsi amaxesha amaninzi kamva yaza yaba ngumzekelo womthetho oqhelekileyo wesiNgesi. Impembelelo yayo yadlulela kumaphepha amva anjengesicelo sasekunene (1628) kunye neSikolo samaNgesi samaLungelo (1689), esiya ngokuya silinganiselweyo igunya lobukhosi kwaye iqinisekisa ubungangamsha bepalamente. Amandla omfuziselo omthetho womthetho womthetho waseMelika athe wawathi wawa misela njengemizekelo yezikhalazo zabo ngokuchasene nesithsaba somphezulu saseBritani. Namhlanje, imibhalo emine yantla isala, nemigaqo yayo engundoqo yemithetho karhulumente kufuneka ibotshwe ngumthetho womthetho wonke umhlaba. [[FLD]] [FLD]

Oonokanaus Ababumba Umthetho WomGaqo-siseko

  • UClaus 39: Akukho mntu ukhululekileyo uya kubanjwa, avalelwe entolongweni, okanye agxothwe ngaphandle kokugwetywa ngokusemthethweni ngoontanga bakhe okanye ngomthetho welizwe.
  • Claus 40: Akukho mntu esiya kumthengisela, akukho mntu esinokumkhanyela okanye silumke okanye simkelwe kokusesikweni.
  • UClaus 12: Irhafu okanye uncedo (irhafu) lwalunokuhlawulwa kuphela ngesiluleko esiqhelekileyo sommandla, imvume yokuqala yokuhlawula irhafu.
  • UClaus 61: Yingxelo yokhuseleko evumela ikomiti elawula amabhanile angama - 25 ukuba ilawule ukumkani (iyingxilo yobuchule engaqhelekanga kumandla aphezulu.

Impembelelo Yabacingisisi Bokukhanya

Ngenkulungwane ye - 17 neye - 18 kwavela iinguqulelo zobulumko ezalicel ’ umngeni ilungelo lookumkani elingokobuthixo yaye zanikela isiseko sentanda - bulumko sedemokhrasi yale mihla.

UJohn Locke Namalungelo Emvelo

Kuye uTreatises zesibini zikaRhulumente (1689), uJohn Locke waqinisekisa ukuba bonke abantu bazalwa benamalungelo emvelo ebomini, inkululeko, kunye nempahla. Injongo karhulumente, waphikisa, kukukhusela la malungelo; xa urhulumente eba ngumonakalo, abantu banelungelo lokubhukuqa. Iingcamango zomngqhoqo ziphembelele uThomas Jefferson kwiSindululo senkululeko kwaye zibunjwe isithethe somgaqo-siseko waseMelika. Ingcamango yakhe yesivumelwano sentlalo-ntlalo-ntle (ukuthiswa kwemi, apho abemi bevuma ngokuphandle ukulawulwa ukuze bakhusele amalungelo abo.)

UMontesquieu Nokwahlukana Kwamagunya

Baron de Montesquieu, Umoya woMthetho , waphikisa ukuba amandla okunikela ingqalelo kuye nawuphi na umntu okanye umzimba akhokelela kulawulo oluphezulu. Wacebisa ukuba kwahlulwe urhulumente abe ngamasebe amathathu: uwiso-mthetho, umphathi, kunye nekomiti egweba, ngamnye okwaziyo ukukhangela amanye. Lo mzekelo wohambo wamkelwa ngqo ngabaHluleki baseMelika kwaye uhlala engumphathi wemithetho yedemokhrasi. uMontesquieu wakwa wagxininisa nokubaluleka kwemithetho ebonakalisa amasiko nemozulu yesizwe esineenjongo yokuqala ye-compustism ne-Implate.

UJean-Jacques Rousseau noMphathiswa weNkqutyana

Rousseau's Ingqungquthela yentlalo [1762]) yaphuhlisa ingcamango yokuba igunya elisemthethweni lezobupolitika likwintsebenziswano yabantu. Waphikisa ukuba abantu banikezele inkululeko yabo yendalo ngenxa yenkululeko karhulumente echaza uluvo luka "ulawulo lomntu ngamnye" ngoxa iingcamango zikaRousseau zitolikiwe kumacala ombini olawulo lwedemokhrasi kunye nolawulo-gunya-gunya, ukugxininiswa kwakhe kulawulo oluqhelekileyo oluphembelela iNguqulelo yamaFrentshi kunye nemibutho yedemokhrasi kamva. Ingcamango yakhe yokuba imithetho imele isebenze ngokulinganayo kubo bonke abemi basekuhlaleni igxininise kumgaqo wokulingana komthetho.

Imvukelo YaseMerika: Umzekelo Omtsha Wolawulo

IMvukelo yaseMerika (1775-17883) yayiyeyona nkqubo yokuqala yemigaqo yokukhanyiselwa ekudalweni kohlanga olutsha. ISindululo senkululeko (1776) sawacela ngokucacileyo amalungelo endalo kaLocke saza savakalisa ukuba oorhulumente bafumana "amandla abo asesikweni ngokuvunyelwa ngabalawulwayo." IMigaqo eyalandelayo yeNkqutyana yokuKhululisa yangqineka ibuthathaka kakhulu, ikhokelela ekuqulunqeni kwe-U.S. umGaqo-siseko ngo1787/a uxwebhu olwadala urhulumente onamandla kodwa olinganiselweyo.

Inkqubo yomGaqo-siseko yokuhlola nokulinganisela yayiyilelwe ukuthintela naliphi na isebe ekulawuleni. Umongameli angawubeka umthetho weveto, iKhomishini ingadibanisa umongameli, kwaye iNkundla ePhakamileyo ingagawula imithetho njengengekho sigqeba-siseko, kwaye amandla amiselwe Marbury v. Madison [18103] [ii-i-i-i-i-171] i-i-Treast synthel, kuquka inkululeko yokuthetha, ukushicilela, indibano, indibano, kunye nelungelo lokuphatha izixhobo, ngokukhuselwa ngokuchasene nokuxhwala okungekho ngqi, ukuzikhusela, nokuzikhusela, nokuzifumana ingqwala, ukuzenzela ngokwako, kunye nesohlwayo engaqhelekanga.

AmaPhepha oLungela, abhalwe nguAlexander Hamilton, James Madison, noJohn Jay, banikela ukhuselo oluqinileyo lokwakhiwa komGaqo-siseko. UFederal No. 10 waphikisa ukuba iriphabliki enkulu ingalawula iingozi zolawulo-lwazi olungcono kuneedemokhrasi ezincinci, lo gama uNxulumani noNo. 51 wachaza indlela ukwahlulwa kwamagunya okungaqinisekisa ngayo ukuba amabhongo alwane amabhongo. [[FLT:]] Funda umbhalo opheleleyo weFederalist Papers.

Iimpawu ezingundoqo zemodeli yomGaqo-siseko wase-U.S.

  • Ukwahlulwa kwamandla kunqamleze amasebe amathathu alinganayo
  • Indlu yowiso-mthetho yeBacameral (Indlu neNdlu yeNtlanganiso) inika ii-arhente zangaphakathi
  • Umanyano lwahlula-hlula igunya phakathi koorhulumente besizwe noorhulumente
  • Ukuhlaziywa kwenkundla kwenza ukuba imithetho engeyoyasemthethweni ingabi nakuphunyezwa
  • Inkqubo yohlaziyo efuna ukuba kubekho izikhundla eziphezulu zokutshintsha imithetho

Imvukelo YaseFransi Nokwanda Kwamalungelo Abantu

IMvukelo yaseFransi (1789-1799) yaqukunjelwa ngenjongo yokususa [[FLT: 0] iqulethwe yi-monarchy régime yamalungelo apheleleyo azimeleyo kunye namalungelo omkhosi. Isindululo samalungelo omntu kunye nowabemi, esamkelwa ngoAgasti 1789, savakalisa ukuba "amadoda azelwe kwaye ahlala ekhululekile kwaye elingana kumalungelo ohlanga, loo mthetho uyintelelo yoyalelo loluntu ngokubanzi, kwaye bonke abemi banelungelo lokuthabatha inxaxheba kurhulumente okanye kuncedo lwabameli.

Isindululo saqinisekisa inkululeko yokuthetha, yokushicilela, kunye nonqulo, kunye nokucingela ukuba msulwa nokukhusela ekubanjwani ngokungenanjongo. Le migaqo yaphembelela intsebenziswano yenguquko eyalandelayo kulo lonke elaseYurophu naseMzantsi Merika. Kodwa ke, imvukelo yakhawuleza yehlela kulawulo lobuGqwebedu phantsi koRoget phantsi koRobespierre, ibonakalisa iingozi zamandla emvukelo engathintelekiyo. Ulawulo lukaNapoleon lwalandela umkhosi kunye nobukhosi babonisa indlela iimfuno zedemokhrasi ezinokupheliswa ngayo. Phezu kwayo nje imiqobo, iSindululo saso saso saso saso saso saso saqhubeka siqhutywa ngemvukelo yeshumi elinesitho-19 lesibini yaye ekugqibeleni saphembelela iSindululo seSindululo seSizwe Solawulo Solawulo Solawulo Loluntu Ngonyaka ka-1948.

IiGirordins ziphikisana nezili -: Umlo Ongaphezu Kwemida

Kwiminyaka yokuqala yemvukelo kwakukho ungquzulwano phakathi kwamaGirondi aphakathi, awakhetha ubugqwesi bomGaqo-siseko okanye irepublic elinganiselweyo, kunye noJacomins onamandla, owaxhasa ukusetyenziswa kwendoda jikelele kunye nokubekwa komzi-siseko kwamandla. IKomiti kaJacobuns yoKhuseleko loLuntu yayekelela inkululeko yabemi abaninzi egameni lokukhusela imvukelo, ibonisa ukuba noorhulumente abadumileyo bangaba nobuzwilakhe ngaphandle kwemiqathango yezequmrhu.

Inkulungwane Ye - 19: Ukwandisa Imilinganiselo Yolawulo - melo

Inkulungwane ye - 19 yayilixesha lokwanda okunzulu kodwa okunzulu kokuthabatha inxaxheba kwidemokhrasi nokulawulwa komGaqo-siseko kumandla kulo lonke elaseYurophu naseMerika. INguquko yezoshishino yavelisa iindidi ezintsha zentlalo neengcinezelo ezanyanzela oorhulumente ukuba baguqule.

EUnited Kingdom, ungcelele lweNguquko Zezenzo (1832, 1867, 1884) ngokuqhubekayo lwandisa ulawulo lwamadoda amaninzi, ngoxa umbutho weTshado wawufuna ukuba amadoda akwindawo yonke asetyenziswe kunye namaqela afihlakeleyo. Ukupheliswa kobukhoboka kuBukhosi baseBritani (1833) kunye ne-United States (1865 emva kwemfazwe yamakhaya) kwabonisa ukunyanzeliswa okungundoqo kokuziphatha nokusemthethweni emandleni abantu. I-13, 14th, kunye neZigqibo zeshumi elinesihlanu zoMgaqo-siseko wabuphelisa ubukhoboka, waqinisekisa ukukhuselwa okulinganayo phantsi komthetho, kwaye amalungelo okuvota eencwadi ekwaluhlangani ayeza kukhuselwa ngogonyamelo ngenkulungwane enye.

KuMzantsi Merika, imibutho yenkululeko ephenjelelwa yiMvukelo yaseMerika neyaseFransi yakhokelela ekumisweni kwerepublic enemiqathango ebhaliweyo, nangona abaninzi babezamana ne-caudillismonto kunye ne-odentinali. EYurophu, iMvukelo yonyaka we-1848 yasasaza iimfuno zomgaqo-siseko, inkululeko yoluntu, kunye nokuzimisela kwesizwe, ukutyala imbewu yokumanyaniswa kwedemokhrasi kumazwe afana neFransi, iJamani ne-Itali.

Ukwanda kwemibutho yabasebenzi kunye namaqela ajongene nentlalo-ntle yabantu asungula iimfuno ezintsha zamalungelo ezoqoqosho kunye nentlalo-ntle, ukwandisa ingcamango yommiselo karhulumente oquka ukhuseleko kwiqumrhu elinamandla eshishini kunye. Abacingisi abafana noJohn Stuart Mill, kwi kwiLiberty [1859]] [1859]), bachaza umgaqo wengozi womgaqo wokuba okuphela komgaqo wokunqanda inkululeko yomntu kukuthintela umonakalo kwabanye.

Inkulungwane Yama - 20: Iintsebenziswano Zehlabathi Zolawulo - melo

Inkulungwane yama-20 yabona ulwando olungazange lubonwe lwedemokhrasi kunye nongquzulwano loozwilakhe abanobundlobongela. Iziphumo zeMfazwe Yehlabathi I zakubona ukuwa kobukhosi bama-Austria-Hunglant, bamaJamani, ama-Ottoman, namaRashiya nokuvela kweeriphabliki ezintsha. Nangona lunesiphene, lwamela imigudu yokuqala yokumisela imida yezizwe ngezizwe kulawulo lorhulumente ukuze kulondolozwe uxolo.

Ukuwohloka Okukhulu Kwezoqoqosho nokunyuka kwefascism nobukomanisi kwakhokelela kwiintlobo ezintsha zolawulo lukarhulumente, zibangela ukuba kubekho ukuxhatshazwa kwamalungelo amakhulu kunye (kwiedemokrasi) namatyala entlalo-ntle anyanzelisa inkululeko yezoqoqosho ngoxa andisa amalungelo entlalo. UkuBulawa Kwabantu Ngenkohlakalo neMfazwe Yehlabathi II zothusa ihlabathi ukuba ulawulo lwasekhaya lungamele lukhuselwe ngokupheleleyo/ukukhuselwa kwamalungelo abantu zweni lonke.

IZizwe Ezimanyeneyo zasekwa ngo1945 zinomthetho siseko owiswe ngamalungu okukhuthaza "amalungelo oluntu kunye nenkululeko esisiseko yabo bonke. ISindululo Somhlaba Wonke Samalungelo Abantu (UDHR), samkelwa ngo-1948, simisela uluhlu olubanzi lwemibutho, yezopolitiko, yezoqoqosho, yezentlalo, kunye namalungelo enkcubeko. Nangona ingeyoyonto edibanisa, yaba yisiseko somthetho wamalungelo abantu ehlabathi lonke, iphembelela uninzi lwemimiselo yesizwe nezivumelwano. Funda umbhalo opheleleyo weUDHR[FLT].

Ukuqhatha Neenkqubo Ezitsha Zokuphelisa

Ithuba lasemva kwemfazwe labona ukususwa ngokukhawuleza kwe-Asia, Afrika, kunye neCaribbean. Amazwe amaninzi azimeleyo asandul' ukuthatha umgaqo-siseko wedemokhrasi, nangona ukungazinzi kwezobupolitika, ukubhukuqa kwemikhosi, kunye nomthetho omnye wecandelo walandela. Ukuguqukela kwempumelelo kweIndiya kwidemokhrasi ngo1947/18. ngomgaqo-siseko oqinisekisa amalungelo asisiseko kunye nocalucalulo.

IMfazwe Yomlomo Nemigudu Yamalungelo

Ngexesha leMfazwe Yomlomo, iUnited States neSoviet Union zombini zathi zixhasa inkululeko ngeli xesha zisoloko zixhasa imikhosi ephantsi kwegunya. Umbutho wamalungelo abantu eUnited States (1950s-1960s) wanyanzela urhulumente wesizwe ukuba anyanzelise imiqathango engokomGaqo-siseko nxamnye nocalucalulo lwamazwelo, efikelela kwincopho yamalungelo oluntu kwiSivumelwano (1964) kunye neVoting Rights Act (1965). Okwangoku, imibutho evukelayo eMpuma Yurophu, enjenge-Songarality ePoland kunye ne-Charter 77 eCzechoslovakia, yayinyanze ukuba oorhulumente bamaKomanisi bahlonele imimiselo yabo kunye nezivumelwano zamalungelo abantu ehlabathi.

Inkulungwane yama - 21: Iingxaki Nezindululo

Kwinkulungwane yama-21, indaleko yemida yegunya likarhulumente iyaqhubeka phakathi kocelomngeni olungaqhelekanga. Iinguqu zamanani ziye zanceda oorhulumente ukuba baqokelele ubuninzi benkcazelo kubemi babo, baphakamise inkxalabo ngokujongwa, ukuzifihla, kunye nokuxhatshazwa. Abaxhathisi nabaxhasi baye babhenca iinkqubo zokuhlola uluntu, ukubhebhetha kokulungelelana kokhuseleko lwesizwe nenkululeko yasekuhlaleni.

Imibutho yoosomashishini neyobupopu iye yavavanya izithethe zedemokhrasi ezikhululekileyo kumazwe amaninzi, ukusuka eHungary nasePoland ukuya eUnited States naseBrazil. Iinkokeli ziye zahlasela amagosa azimeleyo ejaji, amaphephandaba akhululekileyo, kunye nengqibelelo yonyulo enyanzelisa igunya.

Ubugcisa obutsha bukwanikela izixhobo zokuphendula: ugcino-lwazi lukarhulumente oluvulekileyo, ukuvota, kunye nokuququzelelwa kwezentlalo kunceda abemi ukuba bajonge baze babe nenxaxheba ekulawuleni ngokungqalileyo. Ukunyuka kweenkundla zezizwe ngezizwe, njengeNkundla yeNkundla yoLawulo loMbindi-Mbindi weNtshona Koloni, kunye neenkqubo zamalungelo abantu zengingqi (INkundla yaseYurophu yamalungelo abantu, iInternational American) zinikela iinkundla apho abantu banokubeka umthetho wokuchasa amalungelo abo.

Amanani obuqu kunye nobuninzi bukarhulumente

  • I-Edward Snowden's 2013 utyhilo malunga neenkqubo zokuhlola i-NSA zabangela ingxoxo yehlabathi kunye notshintsho.
  • I-European Union's General Data Protection Regation (GDPR) yavelisa ukhuseleko olunamandla logcino-lwazi lobuqu, oluthintela ukuqokelelwa kombuso kunye nequmrhu.
  • Ubugcisa bokubhala ukufihlakeleyo bubangela ukuba kubekho unxibelelwano olukhuselekileyo kodwa bukwafuna urhulumente ukuba avule iingcango.

IPopulist kunye nokuTshabalalisa kweDemocratic Norms

  • Utshintsho lomGaqo-siseko eHungary nasePoland luye lwabangela ukuba kubekho amandla aphambili, lwanciphisa inkululeko yokugweba, yaye lwathintela inkululeko yamajelo eendaba.
  • EUnited States, ukuhlaselwa konyulo olusemthethweni nokungakhethi buso kweSebe Lezobulungisa kuye kwavavanya ukumelana nokucombulula iimviwo nokulungelelana.
  • Intshukumo ye-rasroot njenge-Matshi yamabhinqa, Black Lives Confect, kunye nokuqhankqalaza kwe-pro-democracy eHong Kong kubonisa ukuba abemi bahlala bephaphile.

Isiphelo: Uhambo Oluqhubekayo

Indaleko yemida kumandla karhulumente luhambo oluqhubekayo olubonisa imilinganiselo etshintshayo yoluntu kunye neemfuno zalo. Ukusuka kwimibutho yase-Runnymede ukuya kutsho kumalungu angoku alwayo, umzabalazo wokuqinisekisa ukuba igunya linceda abantu kunokuba libalawule uyaqhubeka. Akukho xwebhu okanye sicwangciso esinika ukhuseleko olusisigxina; isizukulwana ngasinye kufuneka sihlaziye ukuzinikela ekulawuleni umthetho, ukwahlukana kwamagunya, namalungelo asisiseko.

Njengoko sikhangela kwikamva, ubugcisa obuvelayo, ukutshintsha kwemozulu, kunye nolawulo lwehlabathi lonke kuya kufuna ukucinga okutsha ngendlela yokulawula amandla − zombini ezi zinto zikawonke-wonke kunye nangasese. Imigaqo exokelelwayo ihlala ingukhokelo lwethu oluhle ngaphezu kweenkulungwane ezisibhozo: ukuba akukho mntu ungaphezulu komthetho, ukuba ukuvuma kwabo balawulwa kukuphela kwesiseko esifanelekileyo segunya, kwaye wonke umntu unesidima sazuz