Table of Contents

Ilifa Elihlala Lihleli Lokukhetha Umthetho womGaqo-siseko waseMerika

Ingcamango yokudibanisa ngokukhetha imele njengenye yeemfundiso ezitshintsha kakhulu kumthetho-siseko waseMelika. Ibutshintsa ulwalamano phakathi korhulumente wesizwe kunye namazwe ngokuqinisekisa ukuba ukhuseleko olukwiBhili yamaLungelo lusebenza kungekuphela nje kwiBhunga kodwa nakurhulumente nakoorhulumente basekuhlaleni. Le mfundiso esemthethweni, ephuhliswe ngothothotho lwezigqibo zeNkundla eziPhakamileyo, ibangele umgangatho wesizwe wenkululeko engenakwaphulwa ngurhulumente ngamnye. Ukuqonda indaleko kuyimfuneko ekuqondeni indlela umGaqo-siseko okhusela ngayo abemi kurhulumente kuwo onke amatyala.

IXesha langaphambi kokuQhubeka: IBhili yamaLungelo njengeSikhuselo soMgaqo-qhini

Ukuqonda kokuqala noBarron v. Baltimore

Kwiminyaka yokuqala eliqela yerepublic yaseMerika, iBhili yamaLungelo yaqondwa ukuba isebenza ngokubhekiselele kurhulumente worhulumente worhulumente. INkundla ePhakamileyo yamisela ngokuqinisekisiweyo lo mgaqo kurhulumente wesizwe [FLT: 0] Barron v. Baltimore (1833). IJaji eyintloko uJohn Marshall, ebhala kwiNkundla engqinelanayo, yakholelwa ukuba ummiselo weSigqibo seSihlalo seNkuhlanu sokuthatha impahla yangasese ngaphandle kwentlawulo lukarhulumente kuphela, hayi kumaphondo. Isigqibo sasisekelwe kumbhalo nakufundwa komgaqo-siseko: iintengiso kuMalungelo asemthethweni asandul'ukusungulwa, kwaye akukho nto ekwalulwimi lwazo ecetyiswa kwinjongo yokudibanisa amaphondo.

Le nkcazelo yashiya umgaqo-siseko worhulumente ngamnye njengokuphela kokhuseleko kukungabikho kwamalungelo karhulumente. Ngelixesha umgaqo-siseko worhulumente omninzi wawuqulathe ukhuseleko olufanayo, umlinganiselo kunye nokugcinwa kwala malungelo kwahluka-hlukene kakhulu kulo lonke ilizwe. Abahlali kwelinye ilizwe banganandipha ukhuseleko olunamandla lokuthetha, ngelinye ixesha abakwenye indawo benokujamelana nemiqathango enzima. Ukubekwa kwemiqathango yamalungelo kwabangela umsantsa obalulekileyo kwinkqubo yemithetho-siseko yaseMelika, umsantsa ongenakuthethwa de kube emva kwemfazwe yamakhaya.

IMithetho yeMfazwe yasemva kweKhabhile kunye noTshaba kuMandla oManyano

Ukwenziwa kwemimiselo ye-13, yeshumi elinesine, neyeshumi elinesihlanu yoHlaziyo yaguqula ngokusisiseko umgaqo-siseko. Uhlaziyo lweMimiselo ye-14th, olwamkelwa ngowe-1868, lwalubaluleke kakhulu. ISindululo salo se-Adth Proces Claus sasinika ukuba akukho rhulumente oya "kukhupha nawuphi na umntu wobomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla, ngaphandle kwenkqubo efanelekileyo yomthetho." Amalungelo okanye amaImmunitunic Claus, ngelo xesha, avakalisa ukuba "akukho rhulumente oza kwenza okanye aqhube namthetho oza kuvala amalungelo okanye afanelekelwe abemi baseUnited States" la malungiselelo abonakala ekuvuleni umnyango ukuze kukhuselwe amalungelo ombuso nxamnye nezenzo.

Noko ke, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yavala ngokukhawuleza loo mnyango kwiNdlu engu Ityala leNdlu yokuHlala-mali [1873]. Inkundla yakhupha ukufundwa okumxinwa kwamalungelo okanye iiImmunio Clause, ibambe ukuba ikhusele kuphela iqela elisikelweyo lamalungelo asuka kurhulumente elisuka kubemi, njengamalungelo okucela iBhunga okanye ilungelo lokufikelela kwiinkundla zikarhulumente. Uninzi lwamalungelo karhulumente ahlala phantsi kokulawulwa ngurhulumente. Esi sigqibo sawasusa ngokunempumelelo amalungelo oluntu okanye isithuthi seImmuti Claus njengesi esithuthi sokudibanisa kunye nenkundla enyanzelwa ukuba inkundla ikhangele kwenye indawo ukwenzela isiseko somthetho-Rhulumente kwiinkundla zolawulo.

Ukuhlaziywa Kwezigwebo Kweshumi Elinane Nokuzalwa Kokhetho

ICelass Elindelekileyo Njengendawo Efanele Ukusetyenziswa

Ngamalungelo okanye ngamalungelo e-Immunity Claus enikezelwe kakhulu, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yabhenela kwiSicwangciso soMgqibelo se-14 ka-Claus njengendlela yokuqala yokudibanisa. Ingcamango yayikukuba "imvume" ekhuselwe yiNkqubo ka-Xast Claus yayiquka amalungelo asisiseko adweliswe kwiBhili yamaLungelo. Ukuba ilungelo laligqalwa njengelibalulekileyo kwinkqubo yokusesikweni yaseMelika, uMgaqo-siseko ka-Xalo ka-X.

Le ndlela ayizange yenzeke ngesiquphe. Kwiminyaka engamashumi eminyaka emva kweSaughater - House Cases, iNkundla yalwa noluvo lokuba iMpatho-mda weshumi elinesine uquka naliphi na ilungiselelo elikhethekileyo leBhili yamaLungelo. Hurtado v. California [1884]] [1884], iNkuNkundla yawisa umthetho wokuba iSigqibo esiphezulu seSigqibo-mthetho soMmiselo-mthetho asisetyenziswanga kumazwe. Ngokufanayo, Maxwell v. Dow[FLT:] [1900] [iiiii]), iNkundla eyayibambe ukuba umgaqo-mthetho weSithandathu uwiso-mthetho ungagunyazi zibo ezigwetyelweyo. Imbono exhaphayo yayifuneka kuphela ukuba ilandela iinkqubo ezifanelekileyo ezifanelekileyo, nokuba zinjalo zemithetho zikaBili kaBili ka-Bill.

Incopho yokuguquka: Gitlow v. New York

Ixesha langoku lokukhetha laqala nge- Gitlow v. New York (1925). Benjamin Gitlow wabanjwa phantsi komthetho wesiphithiphithi saseNew York wolwaphulo-mthetho sokuhambisa amaphecana akhuthaza ukubhukuqwa kukarhulumente. Inkundla ePhakamileyo, kuluvo olunguMphathiswa uEdward Sanford, yaqinisekisa ukunyanzeliswa kodwa yenza isindululo esigxekayo: "Ngenjongo esikhoyo sisenokuze sithathele loo nkululeko yokuthetha kunye neyokushicilela — ekhuselwa nguMgaqo-mva oQala wokurhoxabela ekubhukuqweni yiBhulumend — iphakathi kwamalungelo angundoqo kunye 'enkqubo engundoqo kaMongameli we-14nethisting ukusuka kwi-Rodmigracces."

Nangona uGitlow aphulukana netyala lakhe ngenxa yokuba iNkundla yafumanisa ukuba intetho yakhe yaphuka ngaphandle kokhuseleko loMphetho wokuqala, intelekelelo yokungachaphazeli yayilixesha lokupheliswa. Okwesihlandlo sokuqala, iNkundla yaqonda ngokucacileyo ukuba ilungiselelo leBhili yamaLungelo lingasebenza kumaphondo ngenkqubo ye-ST Proceswork Clause. Oku kwavula iingcango ze-last complifications yexesha elizayo.

ITheory of Khetha Incorporation: A Case- nge Case Applet

Uvavanyo Lwamalungelo Olusisiseko

INkundla ePhakamileyo ayizange yamkele indlela "yokuququzelela okupheleleyo", ebiyakusebenzisa iBhili yamaLungelo kuMazwe amakhulu. Endaweni yoko, yalandela indlela "ekhethayo" indlela, ihlola ilungelo ngalinye kwityala ngesiseko ukufumanisa ukuba yayibaluleke kusini na kwingcamango yenkululeko eyayalelweyo yaseMerika. Le ndlela yachazwa nguJaji Benjamin Cardozo kwiPalko v. Connecticut[FF:1]

EPalko, iNkundla yaqwalasela ukuba ngaba ukhuseleko lweMpahla weNtlalo-ntle yeNkqutyana luphindeneyo lusebenza kumaphondo. IJaji Cardozo yachaza ukuba kuphela lawo malungelo "asekelwe kwingcamango yenkululeko yomyalelo" afanele adityaniswe. Wahlula phakathi kwamalungelo asuka nje athe alula nalawo angowesicwangciso esifanelekileyo senkululeko. Inkundla yalathisa ukuba umgaqo ofanelekileyo wenkululeko ewisiweyo. Umthetho olungileyo wawubalulekile, uCardozo wabhala, ukuba ukwaphulwa kwawo kwakuya kuthi "kubeke ummangalelwa kwingxaki enzima kwaye kumothuze kungabi nakuhlala kuyo."Phantsi kolu vavanyo, iNkulwa kweNkulwano ayivumanga intengo ephinda kabini ngelo xesha, nangona yayiza kuguqula ukuma kwayo.

Uvavanyo lwePalko lwamisela umgangatho othambileyo nonomahluko. Lwavumela iNkundla ukuba ifake amalungelo ngokuphakanyiswa, ilungelelanise ukutshintsha izithethe zobucukubhede kunye nokuqonda okusemthethweni. Abahlalutyi baphikisa ngelithi olu vavanyo lwalunolwazi oluphantsi kakhulu kwaye lunika abagwebi ubuchule obukhulu bokugqiba ukuba ngawaphi amalungelo asisiseko. Abaxhasi baphikisa ukuba igcine umlinganiselo ofanelekileyo phakathi kolawulo nolawulo lwezikhundla lorhulumente ngoxa ikhusela inkululeko eyimfuneko.

Umahluko Phakathi Kwamalungelo Asisiseko Nawahlukileyo

Ukukhethwa kwamalungelo kwenziwa inkqubo equlathe ithala lamalungelo. Amanye amalungelo, anjengenkululeko yokuthetha, inkululeko yokucofa, ilungelo lokucebisa, kunye nokhuseleko ekuphandeni okungekho ngqiqweni nokuxhuzula, ayegqalwa njengesiseko kwaye asetyenziswa kumaphondo. Amanye amalungelo, afana nemvo entloko yabagwebi yokuHlalulela iSindululo sesihlanu kunye nemfuneko yokugweba iJaji yeSebethi, ayengaquququzelelwanga kwaye ahlala ekholelekile kumagunya ukuza kuthi ga namhlanje.

Ukuvuma kweNkundla ukudlulisela amalungelo kuye kwanda kakhulu ngexesha. Ngeli xesha izigqibo zokuqala zazilumkile, ixesha leNkundla yaseWarren (1953-11996) lakubona ukudubuleka kwemithetho yokuququzelela. INkundla yasebenzisa ngokuqhelekileyo uninzi lwenkqubo yolwaphulo-mthetho ekukhuseleni iBhili yamaLungelo kumazwe, ngokusisiseko iguqula iinkqubo zezomthetho zolwaphulo-mthetho zikarhulumente kwinkqubo. Oku kwabonisa ukuvumisa okukhula kwesigqibo sokuba iziqinisekiso ezithile zomthetho ziyimfuneko ekunyangweni ngokufanelekileyo kuyo nayiphi na inkundla yaseMerika, kungakhathaliseki ukuba igunya.

Uphawu lwetyala leNkundla ePhakamileyo ekuHlolweni

Uhlaziyo Lokuqala: Intetho, Ukusasaza Nonqulo

Emva kweGitlow, iNkundla yakhawuleza yaquka ezinye izikhuseli zoMphetho wokuqala. Nearbor v. Minnesota[FL:1] (1931), iNkundla yasebenzisa umatshini wokushicilela okhululekileyo ukuqinisekisa kumazwe, ikhupha umthetho wesizwe ovumela ukuvalwa kwamaphephandaba. Cantell v. Connecticut [1940]) yaquka i-Free Exect Classie, kunye [FLT] everson v. Ibhodi yemfundo yemfundo yemfundo [1947] yafaka izigqibo zomthetho zokumiswa zika Claus. Ezi zigqibo zimiselo ukuba uHlawulo lokuqala nokhuseleko lukhululwelo olungundoqo lokusetyenziswa ukukhulula nokusetyenziswa kwe-ftfonso.

UMthetho weSine: Ukufuna Nokuphelisa Ulwaphulo - mthetho

Ukufakwa koMphetho-Mphetho wesine kwakuyinkqubo ehamba ngokuthe ngcembe. Wolf v. Colorado [1949], iNkundla yathi ukhuseleko loMphetho-Mdaba weSine wokuLandela nokuxhuzula lusetyenziswa kumazwe, kodwa lwaye lwangafuni ukuba inkundla zikarhulumente zikhuphe ubungqina obufunyenweyo bokungathotywa kwezo ngxaki. Oko kwatshintshwa ngokuphawulekayo Map v. Ohio [1961]], xa iNkubeko isebenza kumthetho olawulayo kwaye ibambe ukuba umthetho owenziweyo ulawulo. Umthetho uTom Clarkles, ubhala uninzi, uqikelelo lokuba umgaqo wesi-Geneajinga-edemite, umendo lwewokunene ube yimeko yemithetho yokusebenza.

UHlaliso lweNtlalo-ntle yeNkcubeko yeSizwe:

Ilungelo loMphetho wesihlanu nxamnye nolwahlulelwano lwaqukiwe Malloy v. Hogan (1964). Esi sigqibo salungisa indlela [ imanda v. Arizona [1966], eyayifuna amapolisa ukuba azise ukukrokraza ngamalungelo awo ukuze ahlale ethulile kwaye ahlale enegunya lokucebisa. Ukwaliwa kwengozi okuphinda kabini, ekuqaleni kwalaliswa ePalko, kamva kwafakwa [FLT:] Benton. Mary [vFLD] [125:] [19696], ukugqiba ukusetyenziswa komgangatho we-Gemplistmers.

UMthetho Wesithandathu Wokwenziwa Kwezono: Ukufumana Icebiso, Ukuvavanywa Kwetyala Nokuxambulisana

UHlaziyo lweSithandathu lwamalungelo okucebisa kumatyala olwaphulo-mthetho lwafakwa kumanyathelo amabini angundoqo. Powell v. Alabama (1932) kwafuneka icebiso kumatyala amakhulu, kodwa yayiyi-Gideon v. Wainr [[FLT]]. Wainwright [1963]) eyamisa ilungelo lokucebisa kuzo zonke iimeko zephondo. Inkundla ePhakamileyo yakholelwa ngamacala engqinela ukuba isiluleko siyimfuneko kwityala elilungileyo. UGidiyon, isibheno esibhalwe ngesandla esivela kwibanjwa laseFlorida, saguqula inkqubo yezomthetho yezolwaphulo-mthetho zaseMelika iphinde ishiye esinye sezona zigqibo ezitheneyo kumthetho womthetho womthetho.

IsiHlalo seSithandathu sokuLandliswa kweMpanzi-mva (] Klopefer v. umNtla Carolina [1967]], ilungelo lokuvavanywa kukawonke-wonke ] kwi-Ever [[[[FLT:]]] [1988]]], ilungelo kwinkundla yabachopheli-mthetho abangakhethiyo [[FLT:]4]]] Praker v.[[FLT:]][FLT] [196]], kunye nelungelo lokunyanzelisa kwinkqubo ], kunye phantsekugqibele kwendlela yokwenziwa kwe-666].[FLT] [iVFLT]]]67] [196]). Amangqina okudibana nongenelelo olusekunene ayeditya kwi-[FT:5]

Uhlaziyo Lwesibini: Umda Wale Mihla

Kangangamashumi eminyaka, uHlaziyo lwesibini aluzange luququzelelwe kuba iNkundla ePhakamileyo yayingakaqondi ilungelo lomntu ngamnye lokuphatha izixhobo. Oku kwatshintsha iDialiverty of Columbia v. Helter (2008]), eyayikholelwa ukuba isiHlaliso sesibini sikhusela ilungelo lomntu ngamnye lokuba nesixhobo sokuzixhobisa ngezixhobo ekhaya. Umbuzo wokudityaniswa kwaphendulwa kwiminyaka emibini kamva [Mcc. Donal v. Isixeko seChicago: 3] (20) (20), apho iNkufumana ulawulo lwesibini umthetho osebenza kulwazi olukwiSibonelelo. McDenccd saso lwayimeko olukwimiqatha oluno oluhlayo oluhlazinzileyo [uluno olunoluquluyiyo]

Ukuhlaziywa Kwemiqathango Esibhozo: Inkohlakalo Nesohlwayo Esingaqhelekanga

Umthetho wesiHlazo seMimiselo esibhozo nxamnye nesohlwayo senkohlakalo nengaqhelekanga wafakwa ku Robinson v. California [1962], owawisa umthetho karhulumente wokwenza ukukhotyokiswa yiziyobisi ube ngulwaphulo-mthetho. Ukuququzelelwa kwe-Odmistive Finefies Claus e-Inc yaqinisekiswa kutshanje Timbs v. Indianaia [2029], eyayikholelwa ukuba isebenza kumazwe. Timbs ngumzekelo omhle wokusebenza ngokuqhubekayo kwe-ekhohlolo olukhethayo, njengoko kwandiswe kwilungiselelo lamaLungelo angazange asetyenziswe kwimo.

Imida Yokungagqibeki: Uvavanyo lwamalungelo asisiseko

Umgangatho Wenkululeko Olungelelanisiweyo

Umlinganiselo ongundoqo wokudibanisa ngokukhethayo kukuba ilungelo lisisiseko kwinkqubo yokusesikweni eMelika okanye "elisekelwe kwingcamango yenkululeko eyomelezekileyo". Lo mgangatho, ocaciswe ePalko kwaye ohluziwe kwiimeko ezilandelayo, ufuna iNkundla ivavanye iingcambu ezinzulu zembali ezilungileyo nendima yayo ebalulekileyo ekukhuseleni inkululeko yomntu ngamnye. Uvavanyo luthambe ngabom, luvumela iNkundla ukuba ilungelelanise ukutshintsha imilinganiselo yoluntu nokuqonda okusemthethweni.

Umgaqo - siseko Oneengcambu

Kwimeko zakutshanje, iNkundla ibuze ukuba ilungelo likwayi "lokuzigcina nokuphatha izixhobo ngokunzulu kwimbali nesithethe sohlanga". Lo mgangatho, othatyathwe eWashington v. Glucksberg (1997), ujolise phambili ngokwembali kuneemvavanyo lwenkululeko eyayalelweyo. KwiMcDonald, iNkundla isebenzise zombini imigangatho, ifumanise ukuba ilungelo lokuzigcina nokuphatha izixhobo zobuqu zisekelwe ngokunzulu kwimbali yaseMelika kwaye kwakhona zibalulekile ekuyaleni inkululeko. Unxulumano oluphakathi kwezi vavanyo zombini luhlala lungumbandela wolwazi, kunye nobulungisa obuxhasa omnye ngaphaya komnye uxhomekeke ekunene embambanweni.

Oko Kungadityaniswanga

Phezu kwako nje ukuhlahlela okubanzi kokuququzelela, imigaqo embalwa yeBhili yamaLungelo ayikaququzelelwa. Umthetho wesiThathu Wokwenziwa kweMpanzi awuzange usetyenziswe kumaphondo, nangona le mbambano inqabile ukuvela. Imfuneko enkulu yokuchophela isalathisi soMgqibo sesihlanu soMgqibo ayiqukwanga, kwaye malunga nesiqingatha samazwe endaweni yoko sisebenzisa iindlebe zokuqala okanye inkcazelo ejoliswe phambili. ISindululo seSebende seSigunyaziso sokulungisa asiwangaquququququzeli, sinika amajelo abalulekileyo kwinkqubo yamakhaya. Umthetho wesi-8h Amendumiso omthetho owiso-bheth awufakwanga ngokuqinisekisiweyo, nangona iinkundla ezisezantsi maxa waso zifumene ukusetyenziswa kwayo.

UHlaliso lwesibini lunelungelo lokuthwala iingalo, lo gama ngoku ludityanisiwe kuMcDonald, luyaqhubeka luvelisa uluvo olungaphaya kobungakanani bomthetho wesizwe ovumelekileyo. Isigqibo seNkundla sikwi- New York State Rifle & Pistol Association v. Bruen[FLT] [2022] [uvavanyo olutsha lwembali lokuvavanya uHlaziyo lwesibini loMmiselo, olungakhokelela ekuphuculweni kwesicelo sasekunene kumazwe.

Impembelelo Yomanyano LwaseMerika

Ukudala Umgangatho Wamalungelo Esizwe

Ukukhetha ukuqulunqwa kwesizwe samalungelo akhethekileyo amele ahlonelwe lilizwe ngalinye. Ummi waseTexas unokhuseleko olufanayo loMhlazi Wokuqala okhululekileyo wokuthetha njengommi waseKhalifoniya. Ummangalelwa eFlorida unelungelo elifanayo lokucebisa njengommangalelwa eNew York. Oku kuqinisekisa ukuba amalungelo asisiseko akaxhomekekanga kumthetho wesizwe okanye kwezobupolitika zasekuhlaleni. Umgangatho wesizwe unika isiseko sokhuseleko, ngoxa amaziko ekhululekile ukunikela ukhuseleko olungakumbi phantsi kwemithetho-siseko okanye imimiselo yawo.

Ukulungelelanisa Amandla Omanyano Nolawulo

Ukukhetha ukudibanisa ngobuchule ulwamkelo lwegunya likarhulumente nenkululeko yorhulumente. Ngokudibanisa amalungelo kwityala ngenkalo, iNkundla ePhakamileyo iye yaphepha ukuthathelwa ingqalelo kwemithetho karhulumente yolwaphulo-mthetho nenkqubo yabemi. Amazwe agcina indlela ephawulekayo kwindlela amisa ngayo iinkundla zawo, ukuqhuba iinkundla, nokunyanzelisa imithetho, lo gama nje engaphulanga ukhuseleko oluqulunisiweyo. Olu lungelelwano luye lwavumela inkqubo karhulumente ukuba igcine uphawu lwayo olufanelekileyo loburhulumente ngoxa isaqinisekisa ukuba inkululeko engundoqo ikhuselwe kuyo yonke indawo.

Abahlalutyi abakhethayo baphikisa ngelithi inika urhulumente amandla amakhulu kakhulu kwizigqibo zikarhulumente zesibini kwaye indlela ehamba ngazo ikhokelela ekungaqinisekini nasekunikezeleni. Abaxhasi baphendula ngokuthi ukuguquka kwemfundiso kuvumela umGaqo-siseko ukuba uguquke kwiimeko ezitshintshayo kwaye ujongelwano lwezomthetho luyimfuneko ukukhusela amalungelo amancinane ekuxhatshazweni kwemiqathango. Ingxoxo ngomlinganiselo ofanelekileyo wokudityaniswa kwelungu liyaqhubeka lisebenzisa ulwazi lwesiseko neembono zomthetho.

Indima yomGaqo-siseko kaRhulumente

Ukukhetha akukhange kunikezele umgaqo-siseko wesizwe ungabinamsebenzi. Ngokwahlukileyo koko, iinkundla zeli lizwe ziye zavelisa umthetho ozimeleyo womgaqo-siseko karhulumente, ngokufuthi zinika ukhuseleko olungaphezulu kunoluncinci lwamazwe. Lo mcimbi, maxa wambi obizwa ngokuba "lulawulo olutsha lomthetho-mthetho," uvumela ukuba kuvavanywe amalungelo anwenwe ngexesha umGaqo-siseko wesizwe unika umgangatho. Umzekelo, ezinye iinkundla zelizwe ziye zachaza urhulumente wachaza inkululeko yokuthetha ngokuphangaleleyo kuMphengululo wokuqala, okanye uphando lwazo kunye neelungiselelo zombuso ezikhusela ngokukhuselwa ngaphezulu kunoMphetho-5. Oku kudlalwa phakathi komthetho wolawulo noMgaqo-siseko womhlaba wonke.

Imibandela Yangoku Nekamva Lokukhetha

Amalungiselelo Angenamsebenzi Nomahluko Onokwenzeka Kwixesha Elizayo

Ngoxa uninzi olukhulu lweBhili yamaLungelo luye lwafakwa, imiqathango embalwa ihlala ivulekile ukuze kuqwalaselwe kwixesha elizayo. Isivumelwano sebheyile yoMgqino-jikelezo wesiXhosa sigqithiseleyo singafakwa kwimeko efanelekileyo, ngokukodwa sinikwe ingqalelo ekhulayo ekuhlaziyweni kwebheyile nasekuvalelweni kwetyala. UMthetho wesithathu, nangona wembali ungazimiselanga, unokuthi uvele kwimeko ebandakanya urhulumente okanye isenzo sikarhulumente wasekuhlaleni. Isigqibo seNkuNkundla eTibs sicebisa ukuba kukulungele ukuqulutya ukuqulutya ilungiselelo lamaLungelo.

UHlaziyo lwesibini luyaqhubeka luvelisa uhlaziyo olubalulekileyo, kwaye umlinganiselo wokusetyenziswa kwayo kurhulumente nakwimithetho yemipu yasekuhlaleni uya kuphuculwa kwiminyaka ezayo. Uvavanyo lwembali lweNkundla eBruen luye lwadala imibuzo emitsha malunga nokokuba yiyiphi imithetho ehambelana noMthetho wesibini wokuHlaziyiswa njengoko udityanisiwe ngokuchasene namaphondo. La matyala aza kuvavanya imida yokubandakanya abalawuli kwinkulungwane yama-21.

INkqubo ePhambili neLixa lamaLungelo angaHlanganisiweyo

Isenzo sokukhetha sinxulumene ngokusondeleyo nemfundiso ebanzi yenkqubo efunekayo, ekhusela amalungelo asisiseko angadweliswanga ngokucacileyo kwiBhili yamaLungelo. Ityala elinjenge bergefell v. Hodges (202015], eyamkela ilungelo elingokwasemthethweni lomtshato osukileyo, [[FLT]]] ne [FLT]]] Dobbs v. Jackson’s Health Organization ] [20222]), ekwindawo elawulayo Roe v. Wade kwaye ibambelele ekubeni umGaqo-siseko ungakhuseli lungelo wokuqhomfa, ucacisa iingxoxo eziqhubekayo ezibaluleke kakhulu ekukhuselweni kwisenzo sombuso. Ezi meko azina zibandakanya indima efanayo, kodwa zithetha ngemisebenzi efanayo ngemibandela ekwaneyo neyo ekwahlulelweyo.

Ikamva lokuzibandakanya okukhethiweyo lingabunjwa nayindlela eguquliweyo yeNkundla ePhakamileyo yoGunyazo. Inkundla ebekelwe ityala elithe tye kwigunya lorhulumente ingakulungele ukudibanisa amalungiselelo amatsha okanye ukwandisa akhoyo. Ngokuchaseneyo, iNkundla ekhusela amalungelo omntu ngamnye ingaqhubeka isebenzisa iBhili yamaLungelo ngokuphangaleleyo kumazwe. Ingxoxo ephakathi kwala maxabiso akhuphisanayo iya kugqiba isiseko semfundiso.

Isiphelo: Ilifa Elihlala Lihleli Lokuzikhethela

Indaleko yokukhetha ukubandakanya okusuka ekubambeni okumxinwa kukaBarron v. Baltimore ukuya kukhuseleko olukhukulisiweyo lwexesha langoku imela enye yezona nkqubela-phambili zibalulekileyo kumthetho-siseko waseMelika. Ngothotho lwezigqibo zengqikelelo, iNkundla ePhakamileyo iye yaguqula iBhili yamaLungelo nxamnye neqhinga likarhulumente ukuba iqinisekise ukuba inkululeko yomntu ngamnye ichasene nawo onke amanqanaba karhulumente. Indlela yemfundiso ivumele ukuqwalasela nokuzinza ngocoselelo, iqinisekisa ukuba amalungelo angundoqo akhuselwa ngaphandle kokuchasana ngokungafanelekanga norhulumente.

Ukukhetha kuseyimfundiso ephilayo, ekwaziyo ukusebenzisa amalungelo amatsha avunyiweyo kumazwe nokuqhelanisa nokutshintsha izithethe zoluntu. Njengoko iNkundla iqhubeka ichaza umlinganiselo weBhili yamaLungelo, imigaqo emiselwe kwiimeko ezifana neGitlow, Map, uGidiyon, noMcDonald iza kukhokela ekusetyenzisweni kwala malungelo. Ilifa elihlala lihleli lokuqulunqela luhlanga apho inkululeko esisiseko ebekwe kwiBhili yamaLungelo, kumbuso ngamnye, naphambi kwenkundla nganye.