Imvelaphi Nesiseko Sezifundo

Ingcamango yokuhlola nokulinganisela ayizange ivele ngokupheleleyo kwiNdibano yoMgaqo-siseko. Yamela ukumiswa kweenkulungwane zeengcamango zezobupolitika namava asebenzisekayo. Eyona mpembelelo engqalileyo yaba sisithandi sobulumko saseFransi uBaron de Montesquieu, ogama lingu 1748 osebenza Umoya woMthetho waphikisa ukuba inkululeko yezopolitiko ifuna ukwahlulwa kwamandla karhulumente phakathi komthetho, isikhululo, nemisebenzi yokugweba. UMontesquieu wakholelwa ukuba ukunikela amandla kuye nawuphi na umntu omnye okanye umzimba ngokungenakugwetyelwa kwakunokukhokelela kubuzwila. Iingcamango zakhe zazisasazwe kwaye ziqhutyelwa kakhulu kumathangalane eMerika, apho babethetha nabantu ababenolwazi ngokwabo ngokwabo ngokwabo ngokwabo ukuxhatshaniswa kwegunya likakumkani phantsi kokumkani uKumkani uGeorge III.

Abaxhasi batsala ngamandla kwisithethe somgaqo-siseko saseBritane, nangona babesele belwe imfazwe neBritane. Inkqubo yaseBritane ibisoloko ibonakalisa ukwahlukana okunzima phakathi kweBhunu (ukubulala), iPalamente (ukuphelisa), kunye neenkundla (izezakwasemthethweni), nokokuba iBritane engabhalwanga yawushiya umgaqo-siseko obhaliweyo ungekho mthethweni ocacileyo, kwaye abaxhasi bemfazwe babandezelekile xa iPalamente yangenelela kwi-buthangathanga-mthetho kwaye xa iBhulumende ixhobisa iindibano. Abaxhasi be-freafreat babefuna ukuqinisekisa ulwano olu xwebhu, besenza amasebe ngamanye acace kakuhle kwaye azimeleyo ngexesha bevumela iindlela zokuchasa ukungene kwezaphuli-mthetho.

Amava eekoloni ngokwawo alungiselela ilebhu karhulumente owahluleleneyo. Ikoloni ngalinye lalinerhuluneli (emiselwe okanye enyuliweyo), indlu yowiso-mthetho ye-bimadral, kunye nenkqubo yenkundla, kunye nemizabalazo yamandla eyaqalisayo yafundisa abemi ngeengozi zegunya elingathintelwayo. Isizukulwana sendaleko safunda iiriphabliki zamandulo njengeRoma, eyayinenkqubo entsonkothile yokuhlola phakathi kwabalawuli, abalawuli, abaqhubi, kunye neendibano ezidumileyo. Ngexesha elixesha lomGaqo-siseko wabelwa ngo1787, umgaqo wamandla ohlukeneyo ngokuvavanywa ngegunya elakhiweyo wawusamkelwa ngokubanzi, nangona abakhaphindi bexutyushwa ngogonyamelo.

ISiseko soMgaqo-siseko

UMgaqo-siseko wase-U.S., watyikitywa ngo1787 kwaye wagunyaziswa ngo1788, wasasazwa amandla karhulumente phakathi kwamasebe amathathu alinganayo. Inqaku Lenza iBhameral Congress enamandla okulawula, irhafu, kunye nokuvakalisa imfazwe. Igalelo II lakha isigqeba esinye esinegunya lokunyanzelisa imithetho, ukuqhuba inkqubo yangaphandle, kwaye layalela amajoni axhobileyo. Inqaku II lamisa isigqeba esizimeleyo esinegunya lokuchaza imithetho kunye neempikiswano. Kodwa abafaki mithetho abathi bame ekuzahluleni. Bakha inkqubo yokulawulana, echazwe ngodumo nguJames Magconflite [FLT:] uNo.[FLT.[FULD][FUM][FUM]

Ii-checkings ezingqalileyo zininzi kwaye zixinene. Umongameli angawubeka umthetho odluliswa yiBhunga, kodwa iKhomishini ingawuphazamisa loo mahluko kunye nee-"3" ezimbini eziphezulu ezindlwini zombini. IBhunga kufuneka liqinisekise ukumiswa komongameli kwisebe lejaji kunye nesebe eliphetheyo kwaye kufuneka livume izivumelwano ngevoti ezimbini-zintathu. IBhunga libamba amandla emali kwaye lingawuhluli umthetho kwaye lisuse umongameli, umongameli, umongameli, kunye nabagwebi borhulumente ukwenzela "umthetho, ukunyoba, ukunyoba, okanye ezinye izenzo eziphezulu zolwaphulo-mthetho kunye nezingalawuleki." i-jadicariary, ngoxa isebe libuthathaka kakhulu kwimibandela ye-coneticercivers (akulawulangalawuli krele okanye isingxowa), linokubetha imithetho kunye nezenzo zolawulo ezichasene nezo zobugqeqeqesholo lwe-gqesho-gqesho.

Esi sakhiwo sasiyilelwe ukuthintela naliphi na isebe ekulawuleni. Njengokuba uMadison waphikisayo, inkqubo yaqinisekisa ukuba amasebe ahlukeneyo awasayi "kukohlukana de angabi nalawulo lomGaqo-siseko kwicala elinye nelinye. Endaweni yoko, amasebe aya "kudityaniswa kwaye adityaniswe ukuba anikwe ulawulo lomgaqo-siseko phezu kwelinye." Ubuchule bolu cwangciso buxhomekeke kwindalo yalo: isebe ngalinye liziqhubela ekuxhaseni ngokwalo ngokwalo ukuxhathisa elinye isebe, ligcina ubunjani balo bonke.

Iingxoxo Kwisivumelwano SomGaqo-siseko

Ukumila kokugqibela kwendlela yokuhlola nokulinganisela kwavela kulwamkelo olukhulu kwindibano yasePhiladelphia. Amazwe amakhulu ayefuna umelo olusekelwe kubemi; amaphondo amancinane afuna umelo olulinganayo. Ukungaguquguquki okukhulu kwadala indlu yowiso-mthetho neNdlu yeeNdlu zooVimba abalungelelanisiweyo nabemi kunye neNdlu yeBhunga enika uvotelo lwesizwe ngasinye. Isakhiwo sesebe eliphetheyo sasiyenye ingxoxo enkulu. Abanye abathunywa babesoyika ukuba isikhulu esinye njengomlawuli onegunya eliphezulu ngokwesininzi sikhokelele kwisiphithi-dlele. Isigqibo sokufaka igunya eliphezulu kumongameli omnye, onyulwe ngumongameli oyintloko we-Elekkolijini efana ngqo nabantu, sabonakala sizama ukulungele ukulungele ukwamkela kwedemokhrasi ngokuchasene nenkanuko ethandwayo.

Kwanasemva kokusetyenziswa komgaqo-siseko, amaAntifederali aqhubeka ephikisa ngelithi uvavanyo lwalunganele. Babesoyika oomongameli bomkhosi, iNdlu yeeNtlanganiso, negunya lejaji lesizwe kwimithetho karhulumente. Ezi zinto zakhokelela ekuthatheni iBhili yamaLungelo ngo1791, eyathi yabeka imiqathango eyongezelelekileyo kumandla orhulumente, ingakumbi ngokuphathelele inkululeko yomntu ngamnye kunye nenkqubo efanelekileyo. Ishumi lokuqala lokulungisa ulwamkelo logcino-mthetho lomthetho kwimimandla apho urhulumente wayengenakuphazamisana, kudala ummandla wamalungelo akhuselekileyo amele ahlonelwe ngawo onke amasebe.

Iimvavanyo Zangaphambili Nezinto Ezimbi

Urhulumente omtsha wakhawuleza wajamelana neengxaki ezavavanya imida yesakhiwo somgaqo-siseko. Kwiminyaka embalwa, umgaqo wokulungisa wamiselwa ngokuqinileyo ngetyala eliphawulayo . UMadison [FLT] (103] [183]. UWilliam Marbury, ukumiselwa koMongameli John Adams, unoSosiba weSizwe uJames Mandy ngenxa yokusilela ukudlulisela ulawulo lwakhe. UJajingameli omkhulu uJohn Marshall, ebhalela iNkuNkundle, walawula ukuba xa uMarriothe wagunya lakhe, iNkundla ayinako ukugunyazalela ngenxa yokuba umthetho unike amandla (umthetho owe-13 woMgaqo-o-o-o-siseko we-1989) uvulwe ngokwawo ngokwawo. Kwisigqeqesho onegunya elipheleleyo lokuchaza inguMgaqo-siseko ongo-oklone (iT).

Olunye uvavanyo lwangaphambili lwavela kuMongameli Thomas Jeffers ekusebenziseni amandla olawulo. Jefferson, umbhali ongqongqo wolwakhiwo owayelumkisile ngokuchasene nokuphambana kwabalawuli, nokokuba wagunyazisa iLouisiana Purchase ngo-1803 ngaphandle kwegunya elicacileyo lomGaqo-siseko (umGaqo-siseko awuliniki mandla okufumana umhlaba omtsha). UJefferson wavuma ukuba ukuthenga kwakungokwahlukileyo kodwa kwakufanelekile kodwa ingcebiso lalo lagunyazisa isivumelwano kwaye waxhasa ukuthengwa, ebonisa ulwando lwenyathelo lolawulo oluphezulu oluqinisekisiwe yimvume ye-Rocravity.

UMongameli Andrew Jackson waqhubela phambili amandla obungangamsha ngokusebenzisa iveto ngonyamezelo. Oomongameli bangaphambili babewafake amatyala kuphela kumacandelo omgaqo-siseko, kodwa uJackson wawakhupha umyalelo owenziwe weBhanki yesibini yaseUnited States ngo1832 ngenxa yokuba wawagqala njenga "ongavumelaniyo nemithetho yobungangamsha" ngokwemigaqo-nkqubo. Wavakalisa ngodumo: "UMongameli ngummeli othe ngqo wabantu baseMelika," ethetha ukuba ummiselo womgwebo wakhe wenza ukuba ufane noweBhunga. Jacksons ukujonga okude ngqinela amandla akhe kwayiguqula ukusuka ekuhloleni inkqubo encinane yesixhobo, umyikelo abazakuba basebenzise umongameli kamva ukuvala umthetho abangayivumelanga kwimithetho yemithetho esemthethweni kunokuba bamisele i-gromagqele.

Ulwando Neengxaki Ngenkulungwane Ye - 19

Imfazwe yo1812 yavavanya amasebe aphetheyo emfazwe. UMongameli uJames Madison, umyili oyintloko woMgaqo-siseko ohlola kunye nolungelelwano, wazifumanisa engumlawuli-oyintloko ngexesha lemfazwe neBritane. Imfazwe yayingathandwa kakhulu eNew England, kwaye iKhomishini yaphikisana ngogonyamelo ukuba umongameli wayenako nangaye nangaye na ngokuquququzelela urhulumente mkhosi. Le mibuzo izakuphinda ibangele ukuxhobisana komkhosi kwiNgqungquthela yeHarrtford, apho abathunywa bebuzwe bathetha nge-sessionon. Imfazwe yaqukugqithela iTreareaaaa iGhent yabuyisela imo yobume kodwa yashiya imibuzo ingapheli ngemiyo malunga nemithetho kamongameli ngexesha lomkhosi womkhosi. Le mibuzo izakuphinda ibangele umkhosi omkhulu ngexesha lemfazwe yemfazwe.

Imfazwe yamakhaya yabona ulwando olukhulu lwemfazwe olunokugunyaziswa yiBhunga elilawulayo eMelika ukuya kwelo xesha. UMongameli uAbraham Lincoln wathatha izenzo ezininzi ezagqitha imida yomgaqo-siseko: wawayeka umkhosi we-Habeas corpus, owavalelweyo kumazibuko aseMazantsi (okusisenzo semfazwe kuphela esinokuthi iNgqungquthela ivumele ukuba ivume), wandisa umkhosi kunye nomkhosi wamanzi ngaphandle kongquzuzulwano, kwaye wakhupha iEmancipration Proclations Proclation njengomyalelo womkhosi okhulula amakhoboka kumazwe avukelelekileyo. ULincolkn waphikisa la manyathelo okugcina imvume ekwalulekileyo ukuze alondolozwe amagunya athe ngethuba lokuvukela kwemfazwe. Noko ke, emva koko, emva kwemfazwe yeRiphabliki ye-Andrian Calson yarhoxis ye-ondreat ye-ofisi e-out, ukuvavanywa kwe-ofisi ye-ofisi ye-ofisi ye-ogne, ukuba ingabine, ingaba imele i-omele

Ukwakhiwa kwakhona ngokwako kwaba nomlo phakathi kwamasebe alawulayo kunye nowiso-mthetho alawula oorhulumente baseMazantsi. IBhunga ladlulisa iMithetho yokuQondanisayo phezu kukaJohnsons trato, limisela umthetho wezomkhosi kwindawo eyayisakuba yiNkundla ePhakamileyo. INkundla ePhakamileyo yahlala ingekho kwiimbambano zokulungisa, ingavumi ukuphinda iinkalo ezingundoqo ezifana [[FULT:]] eAx ePate Milligan[[FLT] [18666], eyayiye yawisa phantsi iimvavanyo zemikhosi apho iinkundla zamajoni zazisebenza khona, kodwa ukuchophela kwenkulungwane ye-19 kwangqinwa ukuba kuvele ukunyuka kweBhunga elinamandla elinamandla [[Impinga] kunye nexesha lokuthetha uJoseph Josephnon angalawula i-proccouraged provies, ukusetyenziswa kwemistton, i-Grencey kuMphathiswanotencel, ngokusetyenziswa yiN.

Inkulungwane Yama - 20: Imfazwe Entsha, Imfazwe Yehlabathi Newatergate

Inkulungwane yama-20 ngokusisiseko yalungisa ulungelelwano lwamandla, ubukhulu becala ngenxa yolungiso lwesebe eliphetheyo. Uxinzelelo lwezoqoqosho olukhulu lwadala ingxaki yesizwe eyafuna ukuba kuthathwe inyathelo elikhawulezileyo, elisembindini. Umongameli uFranklinlinD. Roosevelt wasungula iNew Development, inkqubo eququlukileyo yoncedo, ukuphucula, kunye notshintsho. IBhunga lanika igunya elingenakulinganiswa nanto kwisebe eliphetheyo, ukuvelisa amaqumrhuluya-maziko amatsha afana noLawulo lwesizwe noHlaliso lobuGawulayo kunye noHlu lawulo oluseko oluphakathi. Inkundla ephezulu yaqala ukubetha iinkqubo eziliqela zobuGawulayo, kuquka neNational Izentervection Act Act Act, i-[Foct.[3] i-Rose "Rose-0] ithe i-ecet" i-eact iNt. iNt. iNt. iNt.[agroul.[ault. "alls

Imfazwe yehlabathi II yandisa amandla obumongameli. IRoosevelt yakhupha uMyalelo woLawulo oluPhezulu 906, igunyazisa ukusetyenziswa kweebhombu ze-athom zamaMelika angamaJapan, eyathi iNkundla Ephakamileyo yaxhasa kaKorematsu v. United States[ [19444]. Imfazwe yakubona ukudalwa kweProjekthi yeManhatte neyokusebenzisa iibhombu ze-athom ezigunyaziweyo ezigunyaziswe ngumongameli. Emva kwemfazwe, uMongameli uHarry Truman wanika umyalelo wokuxhawula izinyiso zentsimbi ngexesha lokuxakeka kwemfazwe yemfazwe yaseKorea. Inkundla ephakamileyo yahlasela esi senzo [[FLT] i-town & Tube. Coev. v [FTB] [195], i-192], isahlulo sokwahlulo somthetho esingundoqo solawulo lomthetho-mthetho-mthetho, xa ithenjiweyo, i-Geneequlurceadiyo, i-Genee

Imfazwe yaseVietnam kunye nehlazo leWatergate zabonisa ukuba inokwenzeka ukuba i-Emperence yobukhosi kunye nobuchule bokuyihlola. Oomongameli uLyndon Johnson noRichard Nixon bandisa inxaxheba eMelika kuMzantsi mpuma Asia ngaphandle kokubhengeza okusesikweni kwemfazwe, kuxhomekeke kwiSigqibo seTonkin Gulf (1964). Xa imfazwe yangathandwa, iBhunga leMicimbi yeMpi yowe-193791 yamisa iSigqibo soMongameli soMongameli Nixonsto, ifuna ukuba umongameli wamazwe azise ingqungqungquthela kwisithuba seeyure ezingama-48, afake imikhosi exhobileyo kwaye abeke imikhosi yawo ekwayahlulele iimini ezingama-60 ngaphandle kogunyaziso. Kwandula ke ukugatywa kwe-Rhulumente yeNxen, kwalandela umthetho othelelwa kwiSinyuko-Rhulumente, kunye neSinyuko se-Rhulurhurhu, kunye neSinyuko, i-omrhurhurhurhurhu elizimele, kunye neSinyuso siso

IXesha laNgoku: Ukwenziwa kwelanga kunye nolawulo lweqela

Ukususela ekupheleni kwenkulungwane yama-20, inkqubo yokuhlola nokulinganisela iye yajamelana nengcinezelo entsha evela ekuvaleni kakhulu kwe-CFIA kunye nokunyuka kwengcamango "yomphathi ophezulu". Le ngcamango ikholelwa ukuba umongameli unegunya elipheleleyo kwisebe eliphetheyo, kuquka namandla okususa naliphi na igosa eliza kulawula kwaye alihoye imimiselo emiselayo. Abalawuli bomabini abahlukeneyo baye bandisa ukusetyenziswa kwemithetho yolawulo yokuphelisa ngaphandle kweBhunga, ukusuka kwimithetho yeBhill Clinton kwimithetho yokukhusela imekobume yemekobume kuGeorge W. Abadushs bayalela imiyalelo kwimikhosi yamajoni kunye nokugadelela, ukubeka inkundla ephezulu yetyala i-Rock Obamas Devective Actions (AFCA), ukuvala i-C, ukuvala ulawulo lwemali, ngaphandle kwe-Brangenwa kwe-Bhoverse-evs, ityala leNkurts. Ngamapt) ityala elingulight ekwayinyo kungene iNkugroul, ngokokup (edentiast) iN

Ukubekwa kwethanga eliphantsi komhlaba kuphucukile uvavanyo lwesithethe lwecebiso kunye nemvume. Ukuqinisekiswa kwejaji kuye kwaba kwezobupolitika kakhulu, kunye nokungavunyelwa kwemithetho yezomthetho okusoloko kuhlala kwiiNdlu yeenyanga. Ukwala ukubamba ukuva kukaMerrick Garland ngonyaka ka-2016, kulandelwa kukuqinisekiswa okukhawulezileyo kukaNeil Gormoth noAmy Coney Barrett ngokusebenzisa "ukhetho lwesixhobo se-molecule" ukuphelisa i-filbuster kwiNkurtle ePhakamileyo, ukunyusa ukuqondwa kwejajidicariary njengomdlali we-Roceland. Ngokufanayo, iBhunga lijikele ngamandla okungalungiyo njengesixhobo sokuhlolwa kwe-Genegal Clinton, uDonald (Trice), kunye nokuphengulula i-Af device, ink ekwenziwe ngokunjalo, inkciso yesixhobo esinento esenziwe ngokunjalo.

Ukusetyenziswa kwemiyalelo yegunya elilawulayo kuye kwanyuka kakhulu. Abameli baye bakufumanisa kulula ukwenza into eyodwa kunokuqhuba iBhunga eliqulunqwe ngokutsha. Ngoxa inani lemiyalelo yegunya likamongameli ngamnye liye lehla ukususela kwiNew DO (FDR inikezelwe 3,721 kwiminyaka eli-12), umlinganiselo kunye nentsingiselo yemiyalelo yale mihla ikhulisiwe. IiNkundla eziphakamileyo zeKonsolethi zivumela ukuba kupheliswe imithetho yengingqi elula ngomni nosayino lwamamongameli, kodwa inqabile ukusetyenziswa ngaphandle kotshintsho kulawulo oluqhelekileyo. Ngaphezu koko, iBhunga linike igunya elikhulu lokubeka kumaziko abaphathi abaphezulu bezomthetho, elikhokelela ekunyukeni kwemeko ye-". [FLT] [FLF] [12] [12], kunye negunya elikhoyo] [ii-Roff3] [12]

Inkundla Ephakamileyo NjengoArbiter

[INkundla Ephakamileyo isebenze njengempepho epheleleyo ekudibaniseni- amandla, nangona indima yayo ivele. Ukongeza ku Marbury kunye [[FLT]] ne [FLT] inqabile[[[FLT]], iNkangeleko yenza isigqibo [[FFFFF:3]] [iiiimpepho] [iiiiiiiimeko-amandla] [[FFF]]], igqize [[FFFF:6]] [iiiiimpephos, igcunt [iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiike], ints, ingculoggggne , iNt'iiiieiiike] (iiNt.[10] iNt.iiiiiindla yeNkawuni], iNt.[akelele, iNt.Nt.ualls , ithe , i

Ingxoxo ngobungakanani belungelo lokulawula iyaqhubeka. Trump v. [20], iNkundla yala uMongameli Trumps yazibanga ukuba ukhuselekile ngokupheleleyo kwimiqathango yezolwaphulo-mthetho engaphantsi kwesizwe, ngeli lixa Trump v. Thomp[[FLTL:3] [20], yayeka ukuvala uVikelo lweSizwe ekuguquleni iirekhodi kwiKomiti yeNdluwa. Le mizekelo ibala eliqhubekayo lomatshini wokutsala-om-war phakathi kokubonakala, ukuphendula, nokufuna ukufihla ityala kwisebe eliphetheyo.

Isiphelo: Ingxaki Engapheliyo

Indaleko yeengqikelelo nolungelelwano kwimbali yaseMelika ityhila inkqubo esebenzayo, ephikiswayo engakhange ihlale ihleli. Isizukulwana ngasinye siye sachaza kwakhona isakhiwo somGaqo-siseko ngokuphendula kwiimeko ezinzima, utshintsho lobugcisa, kunye nokutshintsha komanyano lwezopolitiko. Abaxhasi babelindele obu bugqeba; bayila inkqubo ephilayo enokutshintsha ngexesha lokugcina umgaqo-siseko ongundoqo wokuba amandla amele alinganiswe ngamandla. Inkqubo iye yasinda kwiimfazwe, ukuwa kwezoqoqosho, ukutyikitywa, kunye nolwando lwemeko yelizwe lolawulo, kodwa uxinzelelo lonyaka wama-$hyper-partarianship, i-precial, kunye nokwenziwa kwe-judiary-netics.

Into ehlala ingaguquki luxinezeleko olusisiseko: isebe ngalinye linentshukumisa efuna ulwandiso lokwandisa igunya lalo, kwaye lilondoloza ulungelelwano lufuna ukuhlala luphaphamile kuwo onke amasebe amathathu nakubemi. Impumelelo yovavanyo nolungelelwaniso ekugqibeleni ixhomekeke ekuzibopheleleni okudibeneyo kwimigaqo-siseko kunye nokuvuma kwesebe ngalinye ukuxhathisa ukungenelela xa lihlonela izingqi ezifanelekileyo zezinye. Njengokuba ilizwe lijamelene nocelomngeni lobuxhakaxhakaxhakaxhakaxha, ukhuseleko oluphiweyo, kunye nokubekwa kwemimandla yamakhaya, umlinganiselo uya kuqhubeka usanda kuvela. Ukuba liya kuhlala lizinzile ngokwaneleyo ukukhusela naliphi na isebe ekulawuleni limele lihlale lingumbuzo ohlala urhulumente womgaqo-orhulumente waseMelika.