Table of Contents
Ingcamango yokulingana iye yaphikiswa kwaye yaqondwa ngokusemthethweni kumthetho waseMerika ukususela ekusungulweni kwesizwe. ISibhengezo soMgaqo-nkqubo we-Idependent sesingqino sokuba “wonke amadoda adalwe elingana” sahluke kakhulu kukwahluka okukhoyo kobukhoboka obusunguliweyo, ukuthotywa kwabantu belizwe, nokungafezeki okusemthethweni okuye kwabangela ukuba amabhinqa aqondene nabanini-mali abangengabo. Ngaphezu kweenkulungwane ezimbini, iimfazwe ezingokwasemthethweni, imibutho yentlalo, kunye nokupheliswa kwemithetho-siseko kuye kwathi ngcembe ngokuthe ngcembe, kwaye ngokupheleleyo, eli nqaku libonisa ukufikelela kweso sithembiso. Eli nqaku libonisa iziganeko eziphambili ezingokwasemthethweni eziye zaguqula ukulingana kwe-United States, ukusuka kwintlangangentla yentla yentlanganiso yenkulungwane yokuqala engamashumi amabini amabini anesihlanu.
Amaxwebhu Asisiseko Nemida Yawo
ISibhengezo senkululeko noMgaqo-siseko
Isindululo seSindululo seSikhululo (1776) salugunyazisa uluntu olutsha kumgaqo wendalo jikelele wamalungelo emvelo, kodwa lwalungenawo amandla asisibophelelo. UmGaqo-siseko wase-U.S., wagunyaziswa ngo-1788, waseka isakhiwo sorhulumente esamkela ngokupheleleyo ubukhoboka, sabala abantu abangamakhoboka njengabantu abathathu abakhululekileyo ukuze babonise ukuma kwaye savumela ukuthunyelwa kwabantu abangamakhoboka de kwaba ngu-1808. IBhili yamaLungelo (1791) yakhusela inkululeko ekhethekileyo/isiXhobe sonqulo, kodwa ezi zikhuselwa zisebenza kuphela kurhulumente worhulumente worhulumente worhulumente worhulumente omisiweyo okanye ucalucalucalulo-calulo. Ngokomphulo, inkqubo esemthethweni yashiya iinyamba abantu abangaphandle kwesangqa esilinganayo.
Ucelomngeni Lwangaphambili Nokuzingisa Kwezikhundla Zobuqhophololo
Ekuqaleni kwenkulungwane yeshumi elinesithoba, amatyala agcina iimfaneleko zempahla zokuvota, akhuselwe ngokucacileyo amabhinqa ekubeni abe nesikhundla, kunye nemithetho enyanzelisayo yamakhoboka eyayingavumelani nabo bonke abantu abantsundu abangokwasemthethweni. Isigqibo seNkundla ePhakamileyo kwi Dred Scott v. Sandford [1857])) yaxhasa eli qela leqela ngokumisela ukuba abantu bomnombo waseAfrika bangasoze babe ngu-U.S.
Uhlaziyo: Imvukelo yoMgaqo-siseko
UMthetho We - 13 Ohlaziyiweyo
Imfazwe yamakhaya (1861-1865) yaphela ngokuhlaziywa koMphetho-zinzi weshumi elinesithathu ngonyaka wewaka linamakhulu asibhozo anamashumi asibhozo, eyaphelisa ubukhoboka nokungabotshwa. Nangona eli yayilinyathelo elibalulekileyo, ulwimi lwalo lwalunerhintyela elivumela ubukhoboka obungeyomfuneko “njengesohlwayo solwaphulo-mthetho,” ilungiselelo elasetyenziswa kamva ngokuvalelwa ngetyala lokukhulula nokuvalelwa kwabantu abaninzi.
UMthetho Wokwenziwa Kwemigunyathi Weshumi Eline: Ukhuseleko Olulinganayo Nenkqubo Elindelekileyo
ISinyusi-Mpanzi seshumi elinesine (1868) sasisisiqinisekiso sokuqala esicacileyo sokulingana okusemthethweni kuMgaqo-siseko. I-Astimeal Protection Claus yalela amatyala ekungavumini “kumntu nawuphi na kwigunya lakhe ukukhusela okulinganayo kwemithetho.” Kodwa abalungisi bemithetho yokulungisa babeneembono ezilinganiselweyo ngoko “kukhusela okulinganayo”. Kwanye iBhunga eliye ladlulisela ukupheliswa kwemithetho e-Indlayo lavumela ukuba kumiselwe ii-Cladesss-*/asemzikweni lalobe limisela amalungelo athintele amalungelo abantu. Inkundla Ephakamileyo yakhawuleza yawanciphisa amathuba okukhulula abantu kwi-[FLT:] i-Intervert-Iase-Ins [18], ukufezeka kwayo ukukhethela
Uhlaziyo Lweshumi elinesihlanu Nemigudu Yokudlulisela Amalungelo Abantu
ISinyusi seshumi elinesihlanu (1870) saluthintela ucalucalulo lobuhlanga ekuvoteni, kodwa luthi lungavunyelwa ngovavanyo lokubhalisa, ngokuyihlawula irhafu, ngokukhupha irhafu, nangamaxesha okufumana amacandelo ootatomkhulu, kunye nogonyamelo. Idinga lomGaqo-siseko lokulingana kokuvota laliza kuhlala lingazalisekiswa phantse inkulungwane. Okwangoku, amabhinqa azo zonke iintlanga awazange avunyelwe ngokupheleleyo, umsantsa lowo iprodumentationormentormentalmentalmentation arwucothanga.
Ngokwahlukileyo Kodwa Ngokulinganayo: Ukukhethwa Kwezogwebo
[[UMTL: 0] Plessy v. Ferguson[[FL:1] kunye nokunyuka kukaJim Crow
Isigqibo seNkundla ePhakamileyo yowe-1896 [ku--Plessy v. Ferguson waxhasa ucalulo lobuhlanga phantsi kwemfundiso “ehlukeneyo kodwa elinganayo”, ibinzana elagunyazisa inkqubo yokuthobeka kohlanga kuzo zonke iinkalo zobomi bukawonke-wonke. Kwiminyaka engamashumi amathandathu elandelayo, ichaza imithetho enyanzelisa uJim Crow kwizithuthi, imfundo, izindlu, kunye neendawo zokuhlala zikawonke-wonke. Ngelixesha, amaMelika amaIndiya anyanzelwa ukuba anyanzelelwe ukuba athobe kumgangatho ophakamileyo wobomi nowe-Dwes, nto leyo eyathimba ikhutshwe kwilizwe. Amabhinqa ahlala engekho mthethweni nakumsebenzi omninzi, kunye nemfundiso esemthethweni yezonothotho zamabhinqa atshatile phantsi kwamadoda awo.
Idabi Elide Lokuzingela Nokufumana Amalungelo Asekuhlaleni
Ityala Lamabhinqa NoMthetho - melo We - 19
Umbutho wamabhinqa ozinzisayo, owakha kwiNgqungquthela yangaphambili yeSeneca Falls (1848), wafumana ukoyisa okuphambili komgaqo-siseko ngeSindululo seshumi elinesithoba sonyaka ka-1920, esalela ukukhanyelwa kwevoti ngesini. Kodwa utshintsho alukhange luzenzekele ukuphembelela onke amabhinqa. Amabhinqa antsundu eMzantsi aqhubeka ejongene nemiqobo efanayo namadoda amnyama (‘owe-Blacktarackia), irhafuthezo, kunye noloyisolelo-(z) de kube nguMthetho wamaZiko woMdabi waseMerika (nawe-19656). Amabhinqa (namadoda) awazange anikwe amalungelo okuvotantinentine de abe nguMthetho wobuGwandiwe-1924, kwanamazwe amaninzi aqhubeka ewamkela ukususela ekuvotisweni de kuvavanyweni.
Umthetho ogunyazisayo
I-National Association for the Advanced of Colored People (NAACP) yenza iqhinga elingokwasemthethweni lokuvavanya ukwahlukana kwabantu, iqala ngeemeko ezibhenca ukungalingani okubonakalayo phakathi kwamaziko azimeleyo. Sweatt v. [[FLT]] [1950] kunye [FLT] [FLT]] [iiindawo]MCLaurin v.Urhulumente uRegents [1950]), iNkundla ePhakamileyo yaqalisa ukuphelisa imfundiso eyahlukileyo ngokufumana ukuba izinto ezinokubonwa zingu--alukileyo, ukutshintshisana kwemfundo, ukuduma, ukulingana kwemfundo. Ezi zigqityelwa ngokwembali yemfundo yoluntu.
Inkulungwane Ephakathi: Impompoza Ukulingana
Brown v. Ibhodi yemfundo (1954)
Brown v. Ibhodi yemfundo, iNkundla yavakalisa ngamxhelo mnye ukuba ucalucalulo lobuhlanga kwizikolo zikawonke-wonke lwalwaphula uKhuselo lwe-Celal Earl Warren. Imbono yeNtloko enguMongameli igxininisa ukuba amaziko emfundo awahlukeneyo “ayengalingani.” Isigqibo sarhoxa [[FLT]] engenaluvo kumo lwemfundo kwaye iqalisa ishumi leminyaka lokuchasa, kuquka“ ukuchasa-mka kwezelo” kunye nokuthintela kwezobupolitika. Umbangombutho wesizwe wahlala uhleli uqinile de kube nguMthetho we-6462 we-Rhulumente yowiso-mali enika urhulumente ukuba arhoxise izikolo eziko.
UMthetho wamaLungelo ka-1964
Lo mthetho ubalulekileyo wawulwalela ucalucalulo olusekelwe kuhlanga, ibala, unqulo, isini, okanye imvelaphi yesizwe emsebenzini, kwizindlu zikawonke-wonke, kunye neenkqubo ezixhaswa ngurhulumente. ISihlomelo VII sesenzo sadala iKhomishoni ye-Unime Accounting Opportounting Commission (EOC) kwaye sanika amaxhoba ocalucalulo lwasemsebenzini unobangela wesenzo sorhulumente. Ukufakwa kwe- “sex” kwiSihloko VII yayingokokugqibela, kodwa kamva yaba sisiseko semithetho ephawulekayo yokulingana kwe-atlentinethwele ngokwesini nokucalulwa ngokwesini.
ISivumelwano saMalungelo sowe-1965
Emva kohlaselo olunenkohlakalo “lweCawa ye-Blody” kumatshato eSelma, e-Alabama, iKhomfa yagqithisa uMthetho wamaLungelo oMdatha, owavala iimvavanyo zokufunda nokubhala kunye neminye imisebenzi yokuvota. Isenzo safuna amagunya nembali yocalulo lobuhlanga ekuvoteni ukufumana unyulo lwamaqumrhu phambi kokutshintsha imithetho yabo yonyulo. Eli lungiselelo lalibaluleke kakhulu ekunyuseni ubhaliso olumnyama kunye nomelo kuMzantsi. Kamva iNkundlalo ePhakamileyo yanciphisa indlela yokuvota kwangaphambili Shelby County v. Harer[2013] kodwa umgaqo ongundoqo woluvotelo-votiomatiko uyaqhubeka.
Imithetho Yobulungisa Yezindlu yowe - 1968
Emva kokubulawa kukaMartin Luther King Jr., uMthendeleko weFair House Walela ukucalucalucalulo ngokuthengiswa, ngokuqeshwa, nangokuxhaswa kwezindlu ezisekelwe kwisizwe, kwimvelaphi yobuzwe, kamva, isini, ukukhubazeka, nokungalingani. Nangona kunjalo, ukuhlaliswa kwabantu ngokwezikhundla kuyaqhubeka ngenxa yokuthatyathwa ngokutsha, ukuthatyathwa kweendawo zelifa, nokungacalulwa kwemiba eqhubekayo.
Ukulingana Kweenkwenkwe: Ukusuka Kumvuzo Olinganayo Ukusa Kumalungelo Okuzala
Isihloko IX nomgangatho wemfundo
Isihloko se-IX seZinyuso zemfundo zowe-1971 salela ucalucalulo ngesondo nakuyo nayiphi na inkqubo yemfundo efumana imali karhulumente. Nangona ekuqaleni yayiqondwa njengendlela ephambili yokulwa ukukhathazwa ngokwesini, ukuhlaselwa, nocalucalulo kwimibutho yemidlalo, neenkqubo zemfundo. Umthetho uye wanegalelo ekwandiseni amathuba amabhinqa namantombazana kwimfundo.
UMthetho Ongalinganiyo Wamalungelo Nelifa Lawo Elingathotyelwanga
I-Aumencial Rights Amendment (ERA), eyayiza kuqinisekisa ngokucacileyo ukulingana kwesondo kumGaqo-siseko, yadlulisa iKhonkxalaze ngo1972 kodwa yawa kumazwe amathathu okungakhutshwanga ngexesha lonyaka ka-1982. Utshintsho luye lwavuselelwa kwiminyaka yakutshanje, kunye neNevada, i-Illinois, neVirginia i-raconstance emva konyaka ka-2017, kodwa imo yayo esemthethweni ihlala ikhuphisana. Ngaphandle kwesiqinisekiso somthetho-siseko, iinkundla ziyaqhubeka zivavanya imilinganiselo esekelwe ngokwesini ngaphantsi koqikelelo oluphakathi----ayino mlinganiselo ongaphantsi kakhulu kunomgaqo osetyenziswayo ekuhloleni ingqwalaseluntluntluntlukwano olungqongqo.
Amalungelo okuzala kunye ne-Autonomy e- Gener
Isigqibo sasingumqondiso wokulingana kwendoda nendoda, nangona sasijongene neengxaki zezobupolitika nezisemthethweni. [1973], iNkundla ePhakamileyo yavuma ilungelo elisemthethweni lokuqhomfa phantsi kwe-"Century Proces Claus], ichaphazela ngqo ukulawula kwemizimba yayo kunye nokhetho lobomi. Isigqibo sasingumqondiso wokulingana kwendoda neyobufana, nangona yayijongene neengxaki zezobupolitika kunye nezisemthethweni. [[FLT]] Dobbs v. Jackson’s Health Organization yeSty [202]), iNkuphendla yeNkundla yezo [[[FLT:]] [FLT]] [5] yabuyisela umthetho wokuqhomfa kumazwe, idala indawo entsha ekufikeleleni kwempilo elungeleneyo.
ILGBTQ+ Amalungelo nokwanda koKhuselo olulinganayo
Isuka ku Ibhanile ukuya i-'awuyiyo'
INkundla ePhakamileyo yaxhasa okokuqala imithetho yesodoma ku Bowers v. Hardwick (1986), kodwa yajika indlela kwi LAWREnce v. Texas (2003), ibetha imithetho efana nokuphulwa kwenkululeko nemfihlo. Eso sigqibo sabeka isiseko sokwazisa ngexa elizayo ulwalamano oluphakathi.
Ukulingana komtshato kunye [[FLT: 0] Obergefell v. Hodges
Uthotho olukhawulezileyo lwezigqibo zenkundla yesizwe neyorhulumente lwafikelela kwisiphelo obergefell v. Hodges (2015), ekholelwa ukuba uHlaziyo lweshumi elinesine lokwandiswa luqinisekisa izibini ezifanayo ezingokwabelana ngesondo. Esi sigqibo sixhomekeke kuzo zombini i-Sect Procession Clause kunye ne-Encility Provice Claus, iqinisekisa ukuba “ilungelo lokutshata” linkululeko engundoqo engenakukhatywa ngokusekelwe kwimbonakalo yesini.
Ukhuseleko Emsebenzini Phantsi Kwe VII Ebalulekileyo
Bostock v. Clayton County [2020], iNkundla ePhakamileyo yagqiba kwelokuba ucalulo olusekelwe kwimbonakalo yesondo okanye kumgangatho we-transgender lulucalulo “ngenxa yesondo” phantsi kweSihloko VII. Esi sigqibo sandisa ukhuseleko lwemisebenzi yesizwe kwi-LGBTQ+ abasebenzi belonke ilizwe lonke kwaye sabonisa ukuchazwa okubanzi kwekhethe lesini.
Imida Yanamhlanje Yokulingana
Ubulungisa Bobuhlanga Notshintsho Olungokwasemthethweni
Umbutho weBlack Lives Matter, obangelwa kukubulala kukaThiyavon Martin, uMichael Brown, uGeorge Floyd, kunye nabanye abaninzi, ujolise ingqalelo yesizwe kukwahluka-hlukana kweentlanga kwimisebenzi yamapolisa, kwisigwebo, nokuvalelwa. Isenzo sokuqala sika-2018 senze utshintsho olusezantsi kwisigwebo sikarhulumente, kodwa imiba enxulumene nenkqubo , ukuquka ukugcinwa kwemithetho yeziyobisi, imigaqo yemali yebheyile, kunye nokuthintelwa kwemiqathango yemali eqinileyo yabaphathi-ofisini. . I-Advoccatacy yezo inguqulelo yamapolisa, kuquka i-George Floyd Justicement kwi-Price Act, ithe kwiBreance, ngexa amazwe ephume inxaxheba kwizenzo zenguqulo.
Ukubhengeza Amalungelo Kwinkulungwane yama-20
Emva kwesigqibo seNkundla ePhakamileyo iShelby County sanciphisa igalelo lokugquma isalathisi sangaphambili, amazwe amaninzi adlulise imithetho efuna i-ID engqongqo yokuvota, ukunciphisa ukuvota kwangoko, kunye nokukhupha iivota ezi rollar. Abahlalutyi baphikisa la manyathelo ngokungenakuthelekiswa nanto achaphazela abantu bemibala, abantu abahlala phantsi, kunye nengeniso esezantsi yabavoti. UJohn Lewis Voing Rights Act, owasungulwa kwi Congress, uzama ukubuyisela nokuhlaziya inkqubo ye-precradance, kodwa akamiswanga.
Ukulingana Kwezoqoqosho Nomthetho Wokungavisisani
Nangona isiHloko VII kunye nemithetho enxulumene naso isithintela ucalucalulo, “impembelelo engqubanayo” ithi qhaqha imigaqo-nkqubo ebangela umonakalo omkhulu ebusweni ewenzakalisa amaqela akhuselweyo . "ukujongana nokuncitshiswa yinkundla." Ukusilela kuhlala kungumba ozingisileyo: ukuhlawula umsantsa wesini, ngeli xesha uncipha kancinci, kubanzi kumabhinqa anemibala. ILilly Led Benorence Fair Pay Act yowama 2009 icacisa ukuba i-checkerfactors countreants wild yemiqathango, kodwa abameli bayaqhubeka benyanzela imiqathango eqinileyo efana noMthetho we-Pacheck Fairnes.
Amalungelo okuDluliseka nokufikeleleka
AmaMerika anoMthetho we-ADA oneziphene (ADA) ka-1990 awalwaleli ucalucalulo kubantu abaneziphene emsebenzini, kwiindawo zokuhlala zikawonke-wonke, ezothutho, kunye nezokunxibelelana ngekhompyutha. Ngoxa iADA iguqukile kwizakhiwo zomzimba neendawo zokuhlala emsebenzini, kusekho imida ebalulekileyo, kuquka nokufikelela kwimfundo epheleleyo, nokufumaneka kwamanani. INkundla ePhakamileyo iye yazichaza ngokulula iimfuno zeADA, kwaye imiqobo emininzi iyaqhubeka ibangelwa kukungaqiqesheki.
Ulwalamano olumanyeneyo kunye nemida yomthetho wesinye
Ingcamango kaKimberlé Crenshaw yokwahlukana kwemida edibeneyo ibalaselisa indlela uhlanga, ubufanasini, udidi, kunye nezinye ii-MPAWM ezidityanisiweyo ezidibanisa ngayo ukuvelisa amava angaqhelekanga ocalulo. Umthetho wangoku wokungavumelani nocalucalulo udla ngokusebenzisa i-asiding okanye isini okanye isiphene okanye isiphene. . Ukwenza kube nzima kubantu abaneziphene abafumana iingxaki zokuzinzisa ngokupheleleyo. Ezinye iinkundla ziqalise ukuvuma “inkcaso-calulo” kodwa akukho mlinganiselo womthetho ucacileyo okhoyo.
Isiphelo: Umsebenzi Ongagqitywanga Wokulingana
Ukhuthazo lokulingana komthetho waseMerika asilothotho lwenkqubela egudileyo kodwa luthotho lwezibonelelo eziqinileyo, ezilandelwa luxhathiso, ukurhoxiswa, kunye nemida emitsha. Ukusuka ekuphelisweni kobukhoboka ukuya kunconywa komtshato osisidibanisi, ulwandiso ngalunye lokukhusela okulinganayo lufuneke intsebenziswano eqhubekayo yentlalo-ntle, utoliko lwesiseko, kunye nesenzo somthetho-mthetho. Kodwa isiseko somthetho sihlala singaphelelanga: iERA ayizange iqiniseki, amalungelo okuvota ayahlulwa ngokutsha, kwaye ukurhoxiswa kwemiba okulawula kusemgangathweni, impilo, imfundo, nokugcinwa kwemisebenzi. Ukuqonda lembali kuyimfuneko kwabo bafuna ukuhambela phambili umlinganiselo, ngenxa yokuba isithembiso somthetho wokulingana nobulungisa.
ukuqhubekeka kofundo kumatyala angundoqo omgaqo-siseko, bona i-Cornell Information yolwazi olusemthethweni Icandelo loqwalaselo olulinganayo lokukhusela . Uhlalutyo lwembali lwe 144th Amendmement lukhona ukusuka ku [ Ugcino-Malikel'umazwe [[[[FLTLT:]]]]. Ingxoxo eqhubekayo yamalungelo okuvota ifunyaniswa liphenjelelwa liZiko leJaji yeJaji [[FLT][FLT]]