Ulwalamano oluphakathi korhulumente norhulumente wesizwe norhulumente luyila umphambili wolawulo lwamaMelika. Le micimbi, enamandla, emiselwe ngumGaqo-siseko wase-U.S., inika amandla phakathi kwamagunya esizwe naworhulumente, idala inkqubo yolawulo olumanyeneyo eye yavela ngendlela ephawulekayo ngaphezu kweenkulungwane ezimbini. Kubafundi nabafundisi, beqonda indlela impembelelo karhulumente karhulumente karhulumente olawulayo ephenjelelwa ngayo yinkqubo yolawulo-demokhrasi eUnited States. Eli nqaku lihlolisisa iziseko zembali, amandla omgaqo-siseko, kunye neengxaki zamaxesha akhoyo ezichaza ulwalamano lwezwe elingurhulumente, zinika ingqwalasela ecacileyo yengxoxo yezifundo zesikolo kunye nezifundo ezizimeleyo.

Isiseko Sembali SobuProtestanti

UMgaqo-siseko, owagunyaziswa ngowe-1788, wadala inkqubo karhulumente njengolwahlulelwano phakathi kwabo babefuna urhulumente onamandla ombindi kunye nabo babesoyika amandla akhethekileyo. Abafaki-freyim babesebenzisa ubuthathaka bamanqaku oMgaqo-nkqubo, awayeshiye urhulumente engenamazinyo. Ngokwahlula igunya, babenenjongo yokukhusela urhulumente ngokuzilawula ngoxa beqinisekisa umanyano lwesizwe. Isiphumo yayiyinkqubo apho urhulumente wesizwe wayebambana kwaye echaza amandla, kwaye urhulumente obekelwe phantsi kwemithetho egciniweyo (8) umlinganiselo oqinisekiswe kamva yiDemetriment.

Iingxoxo Ezingundoqo KwiNdibano YomGaqo-siseko

Imibono emibini ekhuphisanayo yavela ngexesha leNdibano yonyaka wewaka linamakhulu asixhenxe anamashumi asixhenxe anesixhenxe. I-Federalist , ikhokelwa ngu-Alexander Hamilton noJames Madison, ilwela urhulumente onamandla onamandla ombindini okwazi ukurhafisa, ukulawula intengiso, kunye nokunyusa imikhosi. Anti-FEderalists abalawuli , kuquka uPatric Henry, woyika ukuba amandla anokugina igunya nokukhululeka komntu ngamnye. Ulalanisa urhulumente olinganiselwe, ocalu manani amaqela athe ngqo agunyaze athe asemthethweni kumazwe okanye abantu. Oku kusekho namhlanje kwiingxoxo zolawulo lwe-outhone.

Indaleko Yomanyano

I-Foctal ayimi ndawonye. Ekuhambeni kwexesha, ukutolikwa kweNkundla ePhakamileyo kutshintshile umlinganiselo. Irepublic yokuqala yabona uburhulumente [[FLT:] obukhoyo , obuneemodeli ezahlukeneyo zikarhulumente norhulumente wesizwe. Kamva, iinkqubo zeNkundla eNtsha nenkulu zingenise [[FLT:] i-United States.[FLT] i-1995], apho amanqanaba amabini asebenza kunye kwiingxaki ezahlukeneyo, ngokufuthi ngemali edityaniswe kurhulumente. Ngokukhawuleza, iNkulwa iNkundla ivuselele imidaba ethile kumandla kazwelo njengo [[FLT] [FLT:]] [5].[9] i-United States [FLT]

Amandla Karhulumente Womanyano

UMgaqo-siseko unika urhulumente womabini amandla afunyanisiweyo].

Amandla Anempembelelo

Inqaku I, Icandelo 8 lidwelise amagunya akhethekileyo ali-18, kuquka:

  • Ikhommerce Claus: ilawula umgaqo-siseko kunye norhwebo lwezizwe ngezizwe. Eli binzana liye laba sisiseko somthetho wesizwe omkhulu wamalungelo abantu, ukhuseleko lwemekobume, kunye nolawulo lwempilo.
  • [[UMTL:0] Imicimbi yamazwe angaphandle:[ Uthethathethwano, ukwenza izivumelwano (ngemvume yeNdlu yeeNtlanganiso), nokukhusela uhlanga.
  • Inkqubo yeposi: Ukumisa ii-ofisi zeposi kunye neendlela zeposi.
  • Ugcino lwenqanawa zemfazwe, nokubiza amajoni.
  • Umahluko: [[FLT: 0] Ukubiza imali nokulawula ixabiso layo.

La magunya enza urhulumente wesizwe enze ngendlela enye kwimicimbi efuna umanyano lwesizwe. Umzekelo, iCommerce Classias yasetyenziswa ukuthethelela uMthetho wokukhathalela ongenakuhanjwa [[FLT: 1], ugunyaziso oluthe lwanikwa umntu ngamnye, nangona iNkundla ePhakamileyo yayixhasa phantsi kwamandla okuhlawula kunokuba ihlawulele. (Jonga ]NFIB v. Sebelius, 567 U.S. 519])

Amandla Asetyenziswayo Nokubaluleka Nokufanelekileyo KukaClaus

Icandelo lokugqibela leQumrhu I, iCandelo lesi-8 linika iNgqungquthela amandla “onke imithetho ezakuba yimfuneko kwaye ifanelekile ukuphatha amagunya aphezulu.” Eli binzana liye laba ngumthombo wengxoxo enkulu ukususela Mkloch v. Maryland [1819], apho iJaji enkulu uJohn Marshall wabhala khona ukuba “amandla erhafu abandakanya amandla okutshabalalisa.” INkundla ibikholelwa ukuba iBhunga likwazi ukubeka ibhanki yesizwe nangona umGaqo-siseko ungayigunyazisanga ngokucacileyo, ngenxa yokuba ibhanki“ yayifanele ukuphatha imicimbi yemali karhulumente. Oku kutolika korhulumente waziwayo kwavumela ukuba urhulumente alungise urhulumente ukuba alungise ucelomngeni olutsha, ukusuka ekulungiseni i-Interne.

Amandla Neziphazamiso Zamazwe

Ngaphantsi koMphetho-Mgaqo-siseko weSihlaziyiwe weshumi, “Amagunya awanikwanga iUnited States nguMgaqo-siseko, okanye angavunyelwanga nguwo, agcinwe eUnited States ngokulandelelanayo, okanye kubantu.” La akhuselekileyo [ abumba intliziyo yolawulo lukarhulumente. Amazwe anegunya eliphangaleleyo kwimicimbi yawo yangaphakathi, nto leyo ebangela ukuba sibone umahluko obalulekileyo kwimigaqo yemfundo, impilo, kunye nomthetho kwilizwe lonke.

Iimbopheleleko Zesizwe Ezingokwesithethe

Ulawulo oluyintloko lwamazwe:

  • Imfundo:[[FLT:] Imilinganiselo yeCurricuum, inkxaso-mali yesikolo, kunye nesiqinisekiso sokufundisa. Akukho mazwe mabini anenkqubo yemfundo efanayo.
  • Ulwakhiwo nogcino lweendlela zikarhulumente, iibhulorho, kunye nothutho lukawonke-wonke. Urhulumente wengingqi unikezela ngemali ngeSebe lezothutho kodwa usoloko udibanisa iimeko.
  • I-' I-Health care: Iinkqubo zeMedicaid zidityaniswe kunye norhulumente wesizwe, ukulawula iimarike ze-inshorensi yempilo, nokungamela iimeko zobugxwayiba bempilo yoluntu.
  • [[NTLA] Unyanzeliso lwasemthethweni: amapolisa karhulumente, iikhowudi zolwaphulo-mthetho, kunye neenkundla zisingatha uninzi lolwaphulo-mthetho (ngaphandle kwezo zinqumla iintambo zikarhulumente okanye ngenye indlela urhulumente).
  • [[Umthetho:0] Isakhiwo: Ukujika, ukusetyenziswa komhlaba, kunye nemisebenzi yoluntu.

Amazwe nawo anawo amandla amapolisa — igunya lokukhusela impilo yoluntu, ukhuseleko, nemilinganiselo yokuziphatha. Yiyo loo nto amazwe enokubeka imida yesantya, avimbele izinto ezithile, kwaye afune ukugonywa, nangona imigaqo-nkqubo karhulumente isenokuzicinezela okanye iphembele ezi zinto.

Imiqathango YomGaqo-siseko Egunyeni LeRhulumente

Ngeli xesha uthelekelelo lubanzi, umGaqo-siseko ubeka imida. Icandelo 10 lithintela ukuba kungenelwe kwizivumelwano, ukuveliswa kwemali, okanye ukungeniswa kwemali/indawo yembutho ngaphandle kwemvume yomthetho womthetho. u-Classicane [ (I-Artle VI) livakalisa ukuba umthetho wesizwe “ngumthetho ophakamileyo welizwe,” othetha imithetho yesizwe engqubana nemithetho kazwelonke okanye umGaqo-siseko ayisebenzi. Lo mgaqo, owaziwayo njengo [[FLT:] ], usoloko usisilwano lwemfazwe kumazwe azimeleyo, ingakumbi njengemimandla (se-FLD:4]

Ulwalamano lwengingqi: Intsebenziswano nempikiswano

UmGaqo-siseko uquka amabinzana aliqela alungiselelwe ukukhuthaza imvisiswano phakathi kwamaphondo nokuqinisekisa ukuba kukho ilizwe elimanyeneyo. La malungiselelo asoloko evavanywa xa kumiselwa imithetho echaphazela abemi bamanye amazwe.

Ukholo Olupheleleyo Noclaus

Inqaku le-IV, Icandelo 1 lifuna ukuba urhulumente ngamnye aqaphele izenzo zikawonke-wonke, iirekhodi, kunye neenkundla zomthetho zomnye urhulumente. Oku kuthetha ukuba iphepha-mvume lomtshato elikhutshwe eVermont kufuneka linikwe imbeko eTexas, kwaye umgwebo wenkundla eKhalifoniya unyanzelekile eFlorida. Noko ke, ngaphandle komzekelo, amanani akafuneki ukuqaphela imitshato echasene nomthetho kawonke-wonke (Nkunye nemithetho karhulumente engqongqo yeNkundla ePhakamileyo [FLT: 0]]bergefell v. Hodges[FLT:] (20) ngokufezekile okungoko, kwenziwa ngokunempumelelo umtshato osukhlulwayo-mthetho welizwe). Imithetho iqinisekisa ukuqhubekeka okusemthethweni kwemiqatha yemithetho, ithinte ungquzukisa ungquzulwano lwemizwano yezenzo zolawulo.

Amalungelo no-Claus

Inqaku le-IV, iCandelo 2 liyalela ukuba imeko ingacalucalucalulo kubemi bamanye amazwe ngokubhekiselele kumalungelo asisiseko `njengokusukela ukuziphilisa, ukuba nempahla, okanye ukufikelela kwiinkundla. Umzekelo, urhulumente akanakuyihlawula irhafu ephezulu yemali yokufumana imvume yokuloba ukuba injongo ikukukhusela okupheleli. Noko ke, amaphondo angahlula abahlali kubemi abangathathi-nxaxheba xa befumana umdla owona mbuso, njengokunyanzela ngaphandle kwabafundi abaphezulu abakwiyunivesithi kawonke-wonke. Ityala liqinisekisa uqoqosho olungundoqo kunye nokuhamba ngokusemthethweni kwi-Union

Ingqokelela edityanisiweyo neMithetho yeNkcubeko

I-Extrandition Claus (Artle IV, Icandelo 2) ifuna ukuba kubekho iimeko zokubuyisa ababaleki ababalekayo benqumla imigca yombuso ukuze bajongene nobulungisa. Ama- States akwangena kwi- udibaniso lwangaphakathi []] .Le mithetho egunyaziweyo evunywe yiKhomishini ``idilesi eyahlulwe yiCongress/to idilesi eyabelana iingxaki njengamalungelo amanzi (umz., iColoradow River Comme) okanye isithuthi (Izikhundla sePort of New York neNew Jersey). Le miqums zinegunya yomthetho yesizwe kwaye ibonisa indlela anokusebenzisana ngokuzithandela.

Impembelelo yomanyano kumgaqo-nkqubo kaRhulumente

Nangona amazwe ezimela ngendlela ephawulekayo, urhulumente wesizwe usebenzisa izixhobo ezinamandla zokubumba indlela yokuziphatha yorhulumente. Le mpembelelo idla ngokuphazamisa umahluko phakathi kokuzimela ngokwawo nokuthobela izinto eziza kuqala kumazwe.

IFederalism neGrants-in-Aid

Inkqubo yangoku ixhomekeke kakhulu kwi [[FLT: 0] izibonelelo zemali ukuxhasa iinkqubo zikarhulumente. Ezi zibonelelo zivela ngeendlela ezimbini:

  • Imali enika inkxaso-mali: yeenjongo ezithile (umz., ukwakhiwa kohola wendlela, iMedicaid) eneemeko ezingqongqo kunye nolawulo. Ama-odolo kufuneka athobele imithetho yesizwe ukufumana imali.
  • izibonelelo zokunqanda: i-spoir se-oyile jikelele kwimimandla efana nenkqubela-phambili yoluntu, inika utshintsho oluninzi. Abagxeki baphikisa ngengxengxezo yemiqobo isenokunciphisa uxanduva lwetyala lozwelonke.

Ngo-2023, urhulumente wasekuhlaleni unika urhulumente kunye noorhulumente basekuhlaleni imali engaphezulu kwewaka lezigidi zeerandi, ngokwe- i-ofisi yoHlahlo loMgaqo-mali . Le nkxaso ivumela urhulumente wesizwe ukuba aqhube amaphondo ukuze afikelele iinjongo zesizwe (Ngomzekelo, ukunyusa iminyaka yokusela esemthethweni ukuya kuma-21 etshintshiselana ngemali yohola eenqwelo-ndlela. INkundlalelo-mthetho luxhase iindleko zemibandela ezinjalo njengomGaqo-siseko, ukuba iimeko zichazwe ngokucacileyo kwaye zinxulumene nenjongo yocwangciso.

Umthetho womanyano neMigangatho yeSizwe

Congress ingamisela imithetho esezantsi yemigangatho. Umthetho womoya ococekileyo , [[FLT]], uMthetho woNyango kunye noMgangatho weNkcubeko wezonyango , kunye noMsebenzi woMntwana] Akukho Mntwana Oseleyo [Msebenzi wonke afunekayo kumazwelo, ngamanye amaxesha ngemali, maxa wambi ngaphandle kwemali. Xa imiqathango “inga, ithetha ukuba into, isoloko inyanzelela ukuchitha imali engakhethanga ukuyinyusa. [[FLT] [FLT:]] Umthetho wotshintsho [FLT]

Isalathisi somthetho

Iinkundla zomanyano ```````````Izikolo' ezithenjiweyo'' kwaye ichaza imithetho yezomGaqo-siseko neyamazwe ngendlela ezichaphazela ngqo inkqubo karhulumente. [[FLT:][0] Brown v. Ibhodi yemfundo [1954]) ikhupha izikolo zikawonke wonke, kunye [ Roev] v. [[FLT] [[FLT] [12777]] [7773] imisela imithetho yesizwe ekususeni isisu (ukuphela kwendlela ewiswe ngayo ] [iiiiiiiiiiiKroff]) i-Dobs bs bregi nomthetho womthetho womthetho olawula ngokufanelekileyo, nemimiselo yemithetho yemithetho yemithetho yemithetho.

Imibandela yangoku kwiSizwe

Amadabi akutshanje ezobupolitika nawasemthethweni abalaselisa ukuxabana okuqhubekayo phakathi kwamandla orhulumente norhulumente. Le miba ininzi kakhulu kwingxubusho yaseklasini, njengoko ibandakanya imibuzo engundoqo yomgaqo-siseko kunye neziphumo zehlabathi lokwenene.

ISebe leMicimbi yeNkcubeko neNkxaso

UMthetho weNkcitho ye- owe-AFfordble Care (ACA) ka-2010 owandisiweyo wempilo ngoncedo lwemali ye-athom, utshintsho lwe-inshorensi, kunye nolwandiso oluzenzekelayo lwe-Medicaid. Amanye amaphondo awalwamkeli ulwandiso lweMedicaid, ephikisa ukuba yayikukuphazamisa okungalawuleki. [[FLT:]]NFIB v. Sebelius, iNkugqiba ukuba inkundla ayinyanzelekanga ukwandisa, kodwa urhulumente worhulumente wongasayi kuthintela ukuba iMdicaid inkxaso ekhoyo ukuba ayala. Njengama-2024, amarekho athe athe anti anzile, kodwa akasadalangasakhathanga, umbo lwendawo olukhunge lwezi olufunyenweyo.

Ezinye iimfazwe zivela ngenxa yezithinteli-mali zikarhulumente, i-pristification kagqirha, kunye neengxaki zempilo kawonke-wonke. Isifo se-COVID-19 sabonisa imfuneko yomanyano lwamaqumrhu kunye noxinezeleko xa amazwe emisela imiyalelo eyahlukeneyo yokufihla isigqubuthelo sobuso kunye nokuvalwa koshishino.

Ukufuduka nonyanzelo lukarhulumente

Umthetho womanyano udelela imigudu emininzi karhulumente yokulawula ukufuduka, kodwa amazwana afumene iindlela zokuthatha inxaxheba. SB 1070 (2010) kufuneka amapolisa ahlole ubume bokufuduka ngexesha lokumiswa okusemthethweni, ekhokelela kwisigqibo seNkundla ePhakamileyo (] Awamacana v. United States) eyabetha uninzi umphako kodwa yaxhasa “amaphepha ayakhonelisa". Amanye amazwe, njengoTexas, aye asungula imiqathango yokhuseleko lomda, ngoxa abanye, njenge California, bezibanga ukuba“ bangamazwanalund, isebenzisana negunya lokufuduka.

Imithetho Yokusingqongileyo Neenguqu Zemozulu

Amasebe asisiko afana ne Environal Protection Agency (EPA)[FLT] imisela umoya nomgangatho wamanzi, kodwa achaza ukuba ngamaxesha amaninzi angayizalisekisa, kwaye angasamkela imithetho engqongqo. iKhalifoniya inegunya elikhethekileyo phantsi kwe-Ceac Air Act ukumisela imilinganiselo yayo yokukhupha izithuthi, elandelwe ngamazwe alishumi elinesibini. Ulawulo lweTrump luzame ukuphelisa i-raves, kodwa ulawulo lwe-Biden lungasayi kulwamkelwa yimithetho karhulumente karhulumente ephezulu kumandla ezityalo neendawo ezishushu. Imozulu iguqula imibuzo enzima malunga nokuba ngubani omele akhokele urhulumente okanye urhulumente, ngokukodwa xa urhulumente urhulumente urhulumente udibekile.

Ulawulo lwemipu nohlaziyo Lwesibini

Emva kwezigqibo zeNkundla ePhakamileyo i-Dialite of Columbia v. [2008] kunye McDonald v. Chicago[ [2010], iSecond Amendmentment isebenza kumaphondo nakwindawo. Noko ke, ichaza ukuba izixhobo zilawula iindlela ezahlukeneyo: ezinye zifuna ukuvavanywa kwemvelaphi jikelele, ukuvinjelwa kwezixhobo, okanye ukubeka amathuba okulinda, ngexesha abanye beye badlula “ngemithetho ethintela ukugwetywa kompu. [2022] uRhoview u-Pixol. Brum' v [FLT] uk''''isigqibo esifihlakeleyo sokwelophulophulo mthetho olusuka kwimbali yelizwe phakathi kwemithetho ye-Scorrkirn.

Ukuqhomfa Namalungelo Okuzala

Isigqibo esinguDobs v. Jackson sarhoxa malunga neminyaka engama-50 yenkqubo karhulumente, sibuyisela ummiselo wokuqhomfa kumazwe. Ukususela ngoko, malunga nesiqingatha samazwe siye savalwa okanye sathintelwa kakhulu ukuqhomfa, ngelixesha amanye aye adlulisela imithetho ekhusela ukufikelela. Oku kuye kwakhokelela ekunqamlezeni iingxabano zomthetho ngokuhambelana nokhathalelo, iimfanelo ezisemthethweni zabanikeziqesho, kwaye kwane neenzame zokukhusela oogqirha ekuphumeni kwetyala. Indima karhulumente ihlala ikhuphisana: IBhunga linokuwudlulisa umthetho wesizwe, kodwa ulwanothi lwangoku lwezopolitiki lwenza ukuba kungabikho oko. Ngoku i-R.

Isiphelo

Indima karhulumente karhulumente kwimicimbi yezorhulumente ayiyondlela yokulungisa imicimbi kodwa yingxoxo esekelwe kumbhalo wezomGaqo-siseko, izigqibo zeNkundla Ephakamileyo, iingcinezelo zobupolitika, kunye neemfuno zentlalo-ntle. Ukusukela ekufunyanisweni kweengxoxo zoTata ukuya kumadabi anamhlanje, ukufuduka, kunye nemozulu, ukulungelelanisa phakathi kwamandla esizwe nolawulo lukarhulumente kuseyintsalela ekwakheni ulawulo lwaseMelika. Njengoko eli lizwe liqhubeka lizama ukumelana neengxaki ezinzima, urhulumente uya kuhlala usisixhobo esingaphezulu kunesixhobo sobumimigosa-mali. Ngokuhlolisisa indlela imigaqo esenziwe ngayo imigangatho eyahlukeneyo karhulumente, abafundi, bangayivavanyanisa kakuhle, baxe iziphumo ezifanelekileyo, kwaye bangenelele ngokunelisayo kwinkqubo yedemo-demokhrasi. Njengoko eli lizwe liqhubeka ukumelana neengxaki ezintluntluntlukwano zesizwe, ukuphakama kwelizwe ngokungathandayo