Table of Contents

Iinkundla zikarhulumente zimela enye yeentsika ezintathu ezisisiseko zikarhulumente waseUnited States, ekhonza njengesebe eligwebayo elichaza imithetho, elicombulula iimpikiswano, lize likhusele imigaqo-siseko. Ukuqonda indima kunye nesakhiwo seenkundla zikarhulumente kubalulekile kuye nabani na ofuna ukuqonda indlela esebenza ngayo idemokhrasi yaseMerika nendlela okusesikweni okusetyenziswa ngayo kumgangatho wesizwe. Ezi nkosana zisebenzisa amandla abalulekileyo ekumiseleni imizekelo esemthethweni, ekukhuseleni amalungelo omntu ngamnye, nokugcina ulungelelwaniso olululo lwegunya phakathi kwamasebe karhulumente.

Isiseko somGaqo-siseko samaNkundla oMasipala

Iinkundla zephondo zasekwa phantsi kweGatya III lomGaqo-siseko ukulungiselela okusesikweni nokungakhethi buso, kulawulo olumiselwe ngumGaqo-siseko kunye neNgqungquthela. IGatya III, iCandelo I lichaza ukuba "IGunya lokugweba laseUnited States, liya kubekwa kwiNkundla enye ephakamileyo, nakwiiNkundla eziphantsi njengeNkundla yeNkomfa ePhakathi kaNtsebenzo eMandla eMandla eMandla eMandla eMandla eMandla ngamaxesha ngamaxesha onke, limiswe kwaye limiselwe".

Eli lungiselelo lomgaqo-siseko laseka inkqubo ekhethekileyo yenkqubo yokugweba yaseMerika. INkundla ePhakamileyo yeyona nkundla yezorhulumente emiswe ngokucacileyo ngumGaqo-siseko, ngoxa iBhunga lanikwa igunya lokudala iinkundla ezingaphantsi njengoko kuyimfuneko. Eli lungiselelo labonisa ukulalanisa okucokisekileyo phakathi kwamaFramers, aphikisana kakhulu ngendima nesakhiwo esifanelekileyo sejaji yesizwe.

Ngemihla yokuqala yeNkomfa yoManyano yoManyano yowe-1787, abameli bavuma ukuba icebo labo lorhulumente omtsha liquka iqumrhu lejaji yesizwe, kunye neQumrhu III lomGaqo-siseko laya kubhalisa ukuba ihlobo limisele iNkundla ePhakamileyo lize lishiyele iCongress ukugqiba enoba ezinye iinkundla zikarhulumente zaziya kuba yinxalenye yecandelo elitsha lesizwe. Esi sigqibo salungelelanisa imfuneko yenkqubo yolawulo olunamandla lwesizwe nenkxalabo enxulumene namandla angaphezulu kakhulu kurhulumente wesizwe.

UMthetho weSizwe wowe - 1789

IKhomishini yokuqala yasebenzisa eli gunya kuMthetho weNkundla ePhakamileyo ka-1789, eyadala iNkundla ePhakamileyo eneejaji ezintandathu yaza yamisa inkqubo yenkundla esezantsi yephondo. Lo mthetho wesiphawuli wabeka isiseko sejaji yorhulumente njengoko sisazi namhlanje, idala inkqubo ekwiziqithi-sangqa ezintathu eye yaguquka kodwa yagcina isakhiwo sayo esisisiseko ngaphezu kweenkulungwane ezimbini.

UMthetho weJadicary wowe-1789 waba yimbalasane ebalulekileyo kwimbali yenkqubo yokugweba yaseUnited States, umisela isakhiwo negunya lejaji yephondo, nto leyo eyaphumela ekusungulweni kweNkundla Ephakamileyo enamatyala amathandathu, iinkundla zesithili ezilishumi elinesithathu, neenkundla zesiphaluka ezintathu.

Isakhiwo esingqinelanayo seNkundla yoManyano

Inkqubo yenkundla yephondo yephondo isebenza njengesakhiwo senqanaba eliphambili elinemigangatho emithathu ephambili, ngalinye lisebenza imisebenzi eyahlukeneyo kulawulo lobulungisa. Le ntlangano iqinisekisa ukuba amatyala avalwa kumgangatho ofanelekileyo kwaye inika inkqubo yokuhlola nokubhena.

IiNkundla Zesithili zaseUnited States: Umlinganiselo Wetyala

Iinkundla zesithili okanye zamatyala ezingama-94 zeli lizwe zibizwa ngokuba ziinkundla zesithili zase-U.S. Ezi ntendelezo zisebenza njengesiseko senkqubo yokugweba yorhulumente, apho kuqalisa khona amatyala amaninzi karhulumente. Iinkundla zesithili zisombulula iimbambano ngokugqiba izibakala nokusebenzisa umthetho kwezo zibakala.

Iinkundla zesithili zaseUnited States ziinkundla zamatyala zenkqubo yenkundla yelifa lesizwe, kwaye phakathi nemida ebekwe yiBhunga nomGaqo-siseko, iinkundla zesithili zinegunya lokuphulaphula phantse zonke iindidi zamatyala karhulumente, kuquka imicimbi yamakhaya neyolwaphulo-mthetho. Ezi nkundla zisingatha yonke into esusela kumatyala olwaphulo-mthetho asemthethweni ukuya kumatyala karhulumente abandakanya imibuzo okanye ukwahlukahlukana kwabemi.

Inkundla nganye yesithili inejaji yeSithili enye eUnited States, emiselwe nguMongameli kwaye eqinisekiswe yiNdlu yeNtlanganiso yexesha lobomi. Ngokuqhelekileyo, imimandla emikhulu isenokuba neejaji ezininzi zokusingatha ityala. Abagwebi benkundla yesithili bongamela iityala, ukulawulwa ngokweentshukumo, ukulawula ukufunyanwa, kunye nokukhutshwa kwemigwebo.

Iinkundla zesithili zikwaqesha amajaji ancedisa kwimisebenzi eyahlukahlukeneyo yokugweba. Ngowe-1968, iKhomishini yagunyazisa iinkundla zesithili ukumisela ijaji (esi sibizo satshintshwa saba "umgwebi obhalisayo" ngo-1990). La magosa agweba asingatha imicimbi yokuqala, aqhuba imicimbi yokuqala kumatyala olwaphulo-mthetho, kwaye asenokuqhuba nezivavano ngokuvuma kwamaqela.

IiNkundla zezibheno zaseUnited States: Umgangatho weAppleage-intermediate

Kukho iinkundla ezili-13 ezihlala ngaphantsi kweNkundla ePhakamileyo yase-United States, kwaye zibizwa ngokuba ziinkundla zezibheno zase-U. Ezi nkomfa ziphakathi zidlala indima ebalulekileyo kwinkqubo yokugweba yorhulumente ngokuhlola izigqibo ezivela kwiinkundla zesithili nokuqinisekisa ukusetyenziswa okungaguquguqukiyo komthetho wesizwe.

ezizintlu ezingamashumi asibhozo anesine eziqulethwe ziinkundla eziphakathi ezili-13 kwinkqubo karhulumente ebizwa ngokuba ziiNkundla zezibheno zase-U.S. Maxa wambi ezibizwa ngokuba ziinkundla zesiphaluka zephondo. Ezi nkomfa ziva imingeni kwizigwebo zenkundla eziphantsi zenkundla yeSithili se-U.S. ezibekwe phakathi kwesiphaluka, kwakunye nezibheno ezivela kwizigqibo zesebe elilawulayo, njengeenkundla zokhuseleko lwentlalo-ntle okanye iinkundla ezirhwebiso-mali.

Umsebenzi wenkundla enika ingxelo kukugqiba ukuba umthetho wasetyenziswa ngokufanelekileyo kwinkundla yamatyala okanye kwisebe lolawulo lorhulumente. Ngokungafaniyo neenkundla zesithili, iinkundla zezibheno aziqhubeli matyala amatsha okanye zive ubungqina obunikela ubungqina. Endaweni yoko, zihlola ingxelo evela kwinkundla esezantsi, zihlolisisa iingxelo ezibhaliweyo ezibhalwe ngamaqela, kwaye zisoloko ziva iingxoxo ezithethwa ngamagqwetha.

Kukho iziphaluka ezilishumi elinesibini ezisekelwe kwiindawo zomhlaba kunye nesiphaluka esinye sorhulumente jikelele esinolawulo olunye lomhlaba wonke lokuphulaphula izibheno kwiimeko ezithile, njengalezo zibandakanya imithetho esemthethweni, kunye namatyala agqitywe yiNkundla ye-U.S. Iziphaluka zelizwe zibalwa okokuqala ukuya kutsho kwishumi elinesithoba, kunye neSithilikhitshana saseColumbia. INkundla yezibheno zeFederal inegunya lokwema ngamatyala athile, njengalawo abandakanya imithetho ye-onkqumrhu netyala eliqulunqile le-Federation Auventies.

Inkundla nganye yesiphaluka ineejaji ezininzi, ukusuka kwisithandathu ukuya kwiNqanawa yokuqala ukuya kumashumi amabini anesine kwiSithili. Izibheno kwinkundla yesiphaluka zivakala okokuqala yiqela leenkundla zesiphaluka, eziquka iijaji ezintathu zesiphaluka. Kwimeko ezinqabileyo ezibandakanya imibuzo ebalulekileyo engokwasemthethweni, inkundla yonke ingava ityala "elinokuva umlomo," ithetha ukuba bonke abagwebi abakhutheleyo banenxaxheba kwisigqibo.

INkundla Ephakamileyo yaseUnited States: Eyona Nkundla Iphakamileyo

INkundla Ephakamileyo yaseUnited States ineNkundla Ephakamileyo elawula Ubulungisa obuyintloko baseUnited States kunye namatyala asibhozo anxulumeneyo. Kungekudala emva kweMfazwe Yamakhaya, inani lezihlalo enkundleni lamiswa kwisithoba, yaye namhlanje, kukho iJaji enye eyintloko nesibhozo eMalungisa aManyeneyo eNkundla Ephakamileyo yaseUnited States.

INkundla ePhakamileyo yaseUnited States yinkundla yezonyuso zokugqibela, kwaye idla ngokusiva izibheno ezivela kwiinkundla zezibheno (namanye amaxesha iinkundla zikarhulumente), isebenza phantsi kohlolo olucacileyo, nto leyo ethetha ukuba iNkundla ePhakamileyo ingakhetha ukuba ngawaphi amatyala ekufuneka iwaphulaphule, ngokunika izibongozo zokucelwna nge-ceretiorari. Ngaphaya koko ipesenti elingenye kwesinye sezicelo zesibeleko kwiNkuNkundla ePhakamileyo iyavunywa; uninzi lwamatyala aseleyo lungahoywa okanye lukhanyelwe, ngokunelisayo ukwenza izigqibo kwiinkundla ezisezantsi.

INkundla ePhakamileyo iqhelisela iintlobo ezimbini zolawulo. INkundla inemithetho yokuqala (ityala lizalelwa phambi kweNkundla) kwiimeko ezithile, umzekelo, iisuti phakathi kwamatyala amabini okanye ngaphezulu kunye/okanye amatyala abandakanya oothunywa kunye nabanye abalungiseleli boluntu. Noko ke, amatyala okulawula anqabile ngokwentelekiso. INkundla inegunya (iNkundla iyakwazi ukuva ityala ngokubhenela) phantse nakweyiphi na enye inkundla ebandakanya inqaku lomGaqo-siseko kunye/okanye nomthetho worhulumente.

Iinkundla Zomanyano Ezikhethekileyo

Ngapha koko, isakhiwo seziqithi ezithathu, iinkundla zezibheno neNkundla ePhakamileyo, inkqubo yequkelele iinkundla eziliqela ezikhethekileyo ezisingatha iindidi ezithile zamatyala.

Kukho iinkundla ezingama - 90 ezirhoxisa imali eUnited States, ezinceda abantu namashishini angakwaziyo ukuhlawula amatyala abo bafumana isiqalo esitsha. Sibe ngasinye kwisithili esima-99 sephondo esilawula ukuwa kwetyala, yaye phantse kuzo zonke isithili, amatyala okuwa kwemali agcinwa kwinkundla erhlawulwa lityala, njengoko amatyala okubhangiswa kwemali engenakugcinwa kwinkundla yetyala.

Ezinye iinkundla zinegunya kwilizwe lonke elinjengerhafu (United States Troxity Court), zityhola urhulumente (iNkundla yeMali yeUnited States yee-Phondo), kunye norhwebo lwezizwe ngezizwe (iNkundla yeUnited States ye-International Trades). Ezi nkundla zikhethekileyo ziphuhlisa ubuchule kwimimandla entsonkothileyo neyobugcisa, zinika izigqibo ezithe gqolo kwimimandla yazo.

Isiqinisekiso: Amandla Okuva Iimeko

Ukuqonda igunya lenkundla yorhulumente kubalulekile ekuqondeni indlela inkqubo yokugweba yesizwe esebenza ngayo. ISityholo sibhekisela kwigunya elingokwasemthethweni lenkundla ukuva nokugqiba ngetyala. Iinkundla zoManyano zinegunya elilinganiselweyo, oko kukuthi zinokuphulaphula kuphela iintlobo ezithile zamatyala njengoko zichazwa ngumGaqo-siseko nemimiselo karhulumente.

Isiseko somGaqo-siseko sowiso-mthetho

IGunya lowiso-mthetho liya kunwenwa kuwo onke amatyala, kuMthetho nakuMgaqo-siseko, kuMthetho waseUnited States, kunye neeNgxelo eza kwenziwa, okanye eziza kwenziwa, phantsi kweGunya labo;-onke amatyala achaphazela ama-apostant, amanye amaBangameli noorhulumente;-okanye abaPhathiswa boRhulumente;-onke amatyala eMicimbi yoMkhosi noMazwe ahlukeneyo; akwixesha lokuMikhosi yaselwandle;-Amazwe athelekelele phantsi kweRhulumente, okanye phakathi kweLizwe lasemzini; kunye neLizwe lasemzini;

Eli lungiselelo lomgaqo-siseko limisela imida engaphandle yolawulo lwenkundla yelo zwe. INkundla ePhakamileyo itolike iGatya III njengemisela imida engaphandle yolawulo lwenkundla yorhulumente: IKhomishini ayinakunikela igunya elingaphaya koko iQumrhu III ligunya ligunyazisa, kodwa akuyomfuneko ukuba inike iinkundla zesebe igunya elipheleleyo elinokukhetha ukudibana nogunyazo lomgaqo-siseko.

Isigqibo sombuzo womanyano

I-Clause ilungiselela ukulawula kwenkundla yesizwe ngamatyala aqukunjelwa phantsi komGaqo-siseko okanye imithetho okanye izivumelwano ze-United States (ngamanye amaxesha ezibizwa ngokuba lulawulo lwe-ovential). Olu hlobo lolawulo luvumela iinkundla zelizwe ukuba zivelise amatyala abandakanya ukutolikwa okanye ukusetyenziswa komthetho wesizwe, umGaqo-siseko, okanye izivumelwano. Ulawulo loManyano loManyano luqinisekisa ukuba umthetho wesizwe uchazwe ngokulinganayo kulo lonke ilizwe kwaye izilangazelelo zikarhulumente zikhuselwe.

Amatyala abandakanya umthetho wesizwe wolwaphulo-mthetho, umGaqo-siseko ucelomngeni lokwabelana ngemithetho okanye imithetho yesizwe, ukwaphulwa kwamalungelo abantu phantsi kwemimiselo karhulumente, kunye neembambano ngemimiselo karhulumente zonke ziphantsi kolawulo lwemibuzo karhulumente. Lo mthetho usisiseko kwindima yeenkundla zelo lizwe ekulondolozeni ubukhulu bomthetho wesizwe.

Ukusetyenziswa Kwamaqela Ahlukahlukeneyo

Imicimbi phakathi kwabemi bamazwe awahlukeneyo (okwaziwa ngokuba lulawulo lwamazwe ahlukeneyo) imela olunye udidi olubalulekileyo lolawulo lwenkundla yephondo. Ukulawula ngokweentlobo-ntlobo kwelizwe elinye kuvumela ummangalelwa wephondo ukuba afake ityala kwinkundla yesizwe xa ummangalelwa ekwilizwe elahlukileyo, nokuzisa ityala lomthetho kwinkundla yesizwe, zonke ii-Platoffs kufuneka zibekwe kumazwe ahlukeneyo kunabo bonke abamangalelwayo, kwaye "uxakeke kwimpikiswano" kufuneka abe ngaphezu kwee-$75,000.

Imithetho elawula iingxube ehlukeneyo yenzelwe ukulungiselela ingxubevange yobundilele phakathi kwabemi bamazwe awahlukeneyo, ithetha ngeenkxalabo ezinokuthi iinkundla zikarhulumente zikholise abemi bazo.

Isigqibo esiqulunqiweyo nesiququ

Ulawulo lwamaxesha ahlukeneyo lukho apho iinkundla zorhulumente nezorhulumente zinegunya lokuva uhlobo olunye lwetyala, amatyala olawulo ahlukahlukeneyo angumzekelo oqhelekileyo, yaye impikiswano phakathi kwamaqela avela kumazwe awahlukeneyo inokubekwa kwinkundla yesizwe okanye yesizwe, yaye ukhetho sisigqibo esifanelekileyo.

Kukho igunya elipheleleyo apho kukwinkundla enye kuphela apho kunokuthi kuvelwe amatyala athile, ukuwiswa kwemali, ukubhaliswa kwemali, ukugunyaziswa kwetyala, kunye nomthetho ochasene nentsebenziswano worhulumente kuphela, kwaye uqhawulo-mtshato, ukugcinwa kwabantwana, kunye nokugcinwa kolawulo kungurhulumente kuphela. Eli candelo lolawulo libonakalisa izigqibo zenkqubo yenkundla ekufaneleke kakhulu ukusingatha iindidi ezithile zeempikiswano.

Imisebenzi engundoqo naMagunya eeNkundla zoManyano

Iinkundla zomanyano zisenza imisebenzi emininzi ebalulekileyo engaphaya kokugqiba nje ngetyala ngalinye. Le misebenzi ibalulekile ekulondolozeni umthetho kunye nenkqubo yomgaqo-siseko yokuhlola nokulinganisela.

Ukutolika uMthetho woManyano noMgaqo-siseko

Omnye wemisebenzi ephambili yeenkundla zikarhulumente kukuchaza imimiselo, imimiselo, kunye namalungiselelo omgaqo-siseko. Xa imithetho ididekile okanye xa ukusetyenziswa kwayo kwiimeko ezithile kungacaci, iinkundla zelifa lemveli zinikela iinkcazelo ezinegunya ezikhokela ihambo yexesha elizayo nokwenza izigqibo. Ezi nkcazelo ziba yimiqathango emele ilandelwe ziinkundla ezisezantsi, ziqinisekisa ukungaguquguquki ekusetyenzisweni komthetho wesizwe.

Iinkundla zoManyano zikwawutolika umGaqo-siseko ngokwawo, zifumana intsingiselo yamalungiselelo omgaqo-siseko nendlela esebenza ngayo kwimibandela yale mihla. Lo msebenzi wokuchaza umGaqo-siseko uvumela ukuba uhlale uluxwebhu oluphilayo oluvisisana neemeko eziguqukayo ngoxa ulondoloza imigaqo yawo esisiseko.

Impinda Yomgwebo: Ukukhangela Amanye Amasebe

Elona gunya libalaseleyo laziwayo leNkundla Ephakamileyo kukuhlola okugwebayo, okanye ukukwazi kweNkundla ukuvakalisa isenzo soMthetho okanye solawulo lokwaphula umGaqo-siseko, kwaye asifumaneki kumbhalo womGaqo-siseko ngokwawo; iNkundla yamisa le mfundiso kwimeko kaMarbury v. Madison (1033).

Kule meko, iNkundla kwafuneka igqibe enoba uMthendeleko weBhunga okanye umGaqo-siseko wawungumthetho ophakamileyo welizwe, yaye iNkundla ePhakamileyo yaphawula ukuba umGaqo-siseko awuzange uvumele iNkundla ukuba ilawule lo mcimbi, yaye ekubeni iGatya lesi-6 lomGaqo-siseko limisela umGaqo-siseko njengoMthetho oPhakamileyo weLizwe, iNkundla yathiwa inguMthetho weBhunga ochasene nomGaqo-siseko ongenakuma.

Uhlolo lwezeejaji lumela elinye lawona mandla abalulekileyo eenkundla zikarhulumente, livumela ukuba litshitshise imithetho kunye nezenzo zolawulo ezichasene nomGaqo-siseko. Eli gunya lisebenza njengovavanyo olubalulekileyo kumasebe owiso-mthetho nakwezolawulo, lithintele ekugqitheni igunya lawo elingokomGaqo-siseko okanye ekuphuleni amalungelo awo.

Ngenxa yamandla ayo okuhlola ikomiti, idlala indima ebalulekileyo ekuqinisekiseni ukuba isebe ngalinye likarhulumente liyayiqaphela imida yamandla alo. Lo msebenzi usisiseko kwinkqubo yokuhlola nokulungelelana okuthintela ukuba naliphi na isebe libe namandla kakhulu.

Ukukhusela Amalungelo Nenkokeli

Ikhusela amalungelo oluntu kunye nenkululeko ngokuwisa imithetho echasene nomGaqo-siseko. Iinkundla zoManyano ziye zafeza indima ebalulekileyo kuyo yonke imbali yaseMerika ekukhuseleni amalungelo abantu ngokuchasene nolwaphulo-mthetho. Ukusuka ekukhuselweni koluntu ukuya ekukhuselweni kwenkululeko yokuthetha, ukusuka kumalungelo olwaphulo-mthetho ukuya kukhuseleko olulinganayo, iinkundla zesizwe ziye zaphambili ekuchazeni nasekuqinisekiseni amalungelo omGaqo-siseko.

Iinkundla zikarhulumente zisebenza njengendawo apho abantu banokucell ’ umngeni izenzo zikarhulumente ezichasene namalungelo abo omgaqo-siseko. Lo msebenzi ubaluleke ngokukhethekileyo ekukhuseleni amalungelo amancinane kwiingcinezelo zoorhulumente, njengoko abagwebi besizwe abaphila ubomi bonke bekhuselwe kwiingcinezelo zobupolitika kwaye banokwenza izigqibo ezisekelwe kwimigaqo yomgaqo-siseko kunokuba bacingele into ethandwayo.

Ukucombulula Iingxabano Phakathi Kwamazwe

Eminye imizekelo yemicimbi ephantsi kolawulo lwenkundla yesizwe iquka ukusetyenziswa kwemithetho yezorhwebo kunye namatyala aselwandle, amatyala apho iUnited States iliQela, kunye neempikiswano phakathi kwamazwe. Iinkundla zelifa lesizwe zinikela ubundilele bokucombulula iimpikiswano phakathi kwamazwe, ukuthintela iimfazwe ezinokuthi ngandlel ’ ithile zikhulele kwiimbambano ezinzulu. La matyala asenokubandakanya iimpikiswano, amalungelo amanzi, okanye eminye imicimbi apho urhulumente akhuphisana ngezilangazelelo.

Ukuqinisekisa ukusetyenziswa koMthetho woManyano

Iinkundla zoManyano ziqinisekisa ukuba umthetho wesizwe usetyenziswa ngokungaguquguqukiyo kulo lonke ilizwe. Ngaphandle kwenkqubo yenkundla yesizwe, amaphondo ahlukeneyo angachaza umthetho karhulumente ngokwahlukileyo, nto leyo ekhokelela ekudidekeni nasekungalinganini. Isakhiwo solawulo lweenkundla zephondo, neNkundla ePhakamileyo encotsheni, sivumela ukuphuhliswa kwemigaqo efanayo esemthethweni esetyenziswa kulo lonke ilizwe.

ABagwebi Abamanyeneyo: Ukutyunjwa, Ukufumana Inkululeko

Abagwebi abakhonza kwiinkundla zikarhulumente bahlukile kumagosa karhulumente kwindlela akhetha ngayo nendlela akhuselwa ngayo ukuze azimele.

Inkqubo Yedinga

IGatya III lithi abagwebi besizwe bamiselwa ngumongameli ngemvume yeNdlu yeeNtlanga yeeNtlanganiso, bagwetywe, okanye bafe. Njengabo bonke abagwebi besizwe, amatyala amiselwa nguMongameli yaye aqinisekiswa yiNdlu yeeNtsimbi.

Inkqubo yokumisa iqala ngokuchaza ii-arhente, ngokufuthi ngegalelo elivela kwii-senamente, kwimibutho engokwasemthethweni, kunye nakumaqumrhu asemthethweni. UMongameli ngoko ubeka umvotisi, kwaye iKomiti yeQela leMicimbi iqhuba inkqubela yokuchonga ukuvavanya iimfaneleko zomtyunjwa, intanda-bulumko, kunye nokufaneleka kwesikhundla. Ukuba ikomiti iyavumelana, ubumnekazi buya kwiBhunga elipheleleyo ukuze kuvotelwe.

Le nkqubo iqinisekisa ukuba abagwebi bequmrhu baxhaswa ngamasebe alawulayo nawasemthethweni, ikhuthaza ukufaneleka nokuziphendulela ngoxa kugcinwa inkululeko yokugweba xa imisiwe.

Ubomi Bomntu Onexesha Elide Nokhuseleko Lokuthengiswa Kwemali

ABagwebi, bobabini abasematyaleni aphezulu nangaphantsi, baza kuphatha iiOfisi zabo ngexesha lokuziphatha okuhle, kwaye, ngamaxesha achaziweyo, baya kufumana iiNkonzo zabo, iNkundla, engasayi kuncitshiswa ngexesha lesivumelwano sabo e-Ofisini.

Ngokuqhelekileyo, bakwisikhundla sobomi bonke, imivuzo yabagwebi ayinakuncitshiswa ngexesha labo lokusebenza, yaye le miqathango yenzelwe ukukhusela inkululeko yabagwebi kumasebe ezobupolitika karhulumente.

Ixesha lobomi lilelokuqala lokuzimela geqe. Ngokusebenza "ngesimilo esihle," abagwebi besizwe bakhuselwe kwiingcinezelo zobupolitika kwaye bangenza izigqibo ezisekelwe ekuqondeni kwabo umthetho nomGaqo-siseko ngaphandle koloyiko lokuphulukana nezikhundla zabo. Le nkululeko ivumela abagwebi ukuba benze izigqibo ezingathandwayo kodwa ezichanekiyo ngokusemthethweni, ukukhusela amalungelo amancinane nokumisela imiqathango esiseko somthetho naxa usenza oko kuchasene nokhetho lwamagosa anyuliweyo okanye noorhulumente abakhulu abadumileyo.

Ukwalelwa kokuncitshiswa kwemivuzo yetyala kunikela ukhuseleko olongezelelekileyo lwenkululeko yokugweba, kuthintela iNgqungquthela okanye uMongameli ekusebenziseni ingcinezelo yemali ukuphembelela izigwebo zomgwebo. Ngoxa iNkqutyana inokunyusa imivuzo egwebayo yaye inokumisela imivuzo kubagwebi abasandul ’ ukutyunjwa, ayinakuwunciphisa umvuzo wabagwebi abahleli phantsi.

Ukususelwa Ngokungacebisi

Abagwebi basenokuhlala bekwisikhundla sabo ubomi babo bonke, kodwa abaninzi barhoxa okanye bathathe umhlala - phantsi ngaphambilana, basenokususwa ngokungatyi iNdlu yabameli nangokugwetywa yiBhunga, yaye ukutyhubela imbali, abagwebi borhulumente abalishumi elinesihlanu baye bagwetywa ngenxa yoko kutyholwa ukuba benza okubi.

Inkqubo yokungakhuthazi inika inkqubo yokususa abagwebi ababandakanyeka kwihambo engalunganga enzulu, kodwa umqobo ophezulu wokususwa kwe-(-icela ukuba uninzi lwevoti eNdlu lungatyikityani kwaye isibini-sithathu sovoti kwiNdlu yeenqanawa sibophelele ukugweba (isiqinisekiso sokuba abagwebi abanakususwa nje kuphela ekwenzeni izigqibo ezingathandwayo. Olu lungelelwano lugcina ukuzimela ngelixa lunika ityala lokuziphatha okubi.

Ulwalamano Phakathi Kweenkundla Zomanyano NezoRhulumente

I-US iqhuba inkqubo yenkundla ezimbini, iinkundla zelifa lemveli kunye neenkundla zikarhulumente ezihambelana, nganye inemida echaziweyo. Ukuqonda le nkqubo idibeneyo kubalulekile ekuqondeni indlela okusesikweni okulawulwa ngayo eUnited States.

Isigqibo sombuso jikelele esisikelwe umda

Iinkundla zoManyano zinegunya elilinganiselweyo, zinokuwava kuphela amatyala agunyaziswe ngokukhethekileyo ngumGaqo-siseko okanye imimiselo karhulumente, kwaye zisingatha ulwaphulo-mthetho lwamazwe, imibuzo engokomGaqo-siseko, iimpikiswano phakathi kwamazwe, namatyala abandakanya umthetho wesizwe. Iinkundla zikarhulumente zinegunya eliqhelekileyo kwaye ziphulaphule uninzi lweempikiswano ezingokwasemthethweni e-U.

Icandelo libonakalisa imo karhulumente waseMerika. Iinkundla zeli lizwe zisingatha inkoliso yemiba yetyala lolwaphulo-mthetho, imicimbi yentsapho, iimbambano, amatyala okwenzakala ngokobuqu, neminye imicimbi elawulwa ngumthetho wesizwe. Iinkundla zoManyano-mthetho zigxininisa kwimicimbi yesizwe, yemiba yomgaqo-siseko, kunye neempikiswano ezinqamleza imiqathango yorhulumente okanye ezibandakanya izilangazelelo zikarhulumente.

Ukusebenzisana Nokuncedana

La masebe mathathu — owiso-mthetho, onegunya kunye nogwebo — asebenza kwinkqubo yomgaqo-siseko "yemiqathango kunye nolungelelwano," nto leyo ethetha ukuba nangona isebe ngalinye lahlukile ngokusesikweni kwamanye amabini, umGaqo-siseko usoloko ufuna intsebenziswano phakathi kwamasebe. Ngokufanayo, iinkundla zorhulumente kufuneka zisebenzisane kwaye zisebenzisane ngeendlela ezahlukeneyo.

Iinkundla zelifa lesizwe zisoloko zichaza zize zisebenzise umthetho wesizwe, ingakumbi kwiimeko ezibandakanya ulawulo lwamatyala lwamaqumrhu. Maxa wambi iinkundla zamatyala kufuneka zichaze umthetho karhulumente xa zisebenzisa igunya lentlalo-ntle. Imfundiso ye-Erie kufuneka ukuba iinkundla zesizwe zisebenzise umthetho karhulumente ongaphantsi kwesokuphuma kumthetho karhulumente ukuba athi uvela kwiinkundla zikarhulumente (osenokuthi uviwe kwiinkundla zikarhulumente phantsi kolwaniso okanye ulawulo lwezohlukene-mthetho) kwaye kwiimeko ezinzima, iinkundla zesizwe kufuneka zicebe enoba inkundla yaloo rhulumente iya kwenza njani isigqibo okanye, ukuba elo tyala liyamkela imibuzo engqinelayo kwinkundla yorhulumente xa umthetho urhulumente ungenakuphikiswa okanye urhulumente, zibuze inkundla yetyala elo tyala ukuba ligqibe loo mbambano.

Impembelelo Yezigqibo Zenkundla Yomanyano

Izigqibo zenkundla yomanyano zineziphumo ezifikelela kude ezidlulela ngaphaya kwamaqela akhawulezileyo kwityala. Ezi zigqibo zibumba imfundiso engokwasemthethweni, impembelelo kumgaqo-nkqubo kawonke-wonke, kwaye zichaphazela ubomi bezigidi zamaMerika.

Uqhelaniso neStar Decis

Iinkundla zomanyano zisebenza phantsi kwemfundiso yokujongwa kwamehlo, okuthetha ukuthi "ukuma ngokwezinto ezigqitywe". Phantsi kwale mfundiso, iinkundla ngokuqhelekileyo zilandela imizekelo emiselwe kwiimeko zangaphambili xa kuqukwa imibandela efanayo. Oku kukhuthaza ukungaguquguquki, ukuthelekelelwa, nokuzinza komthetho.

Iinkundla zephondo ezisezantsi zibotshelelwe yimizekeliso yeenkundla eziphakamileyo eziphantsi kolawulo lwazo. Iinkundla zesithili kufuneka zilandele imizekelo yenkundla yazo yesiphaluka yezibheno neNkundla ePhakamileyo. Iinkundla zesithili kufuneka zilandele imizekelo yeNkundla Ephakamileyo. INkundla Ephakamileyo ngokwayo ilandela imizekelo yayo, nangona inamandla okulawula xa iqinisekile ukuba isigqibo sangaphambili sasiphosakele okanye sasingasafanelekanga.

Ukutshintsha Intlalo Nomthetho

Izigwebo zenkundla yomanyano ziye zaba negalelo ekuqhubeni iinguqulelo zoluntu nezomthetho kuyo yonke imbali yaseMerika. Izigwebo zeNkundla Ephakamileyo yeLandpork ziye zaphelisa ukwahlulwa kwamalungelo ezikolo, zamkele amalungelo amatsha omGaqo-siseko, zandisa inkululeko yabemi, zabuguqula kwakhona ulwalamano phakathi korhulumente nabemi.

Ezi zigqibo zidla ngokuthetha ngemibandela yokuba izindlu zowiso-mthetho azizimisele okanye azikwazi ukuyicombulula, zinika izicombululo ezingokwasemthethweni kwiingxaki zentlalo.

Isenzo sokwalathisa uMthetho

Izigwebo zenkundla yomanyano zichaphazela indlela amasebe owiso-mthetho kunye namagunya alawulayo asebenza ngayo. Xa iinkundla ziwisa imithetho okanye izenzo ezilawulayo njengeenkqubo ezingekho semthethweni, zinyanzelela amasebe ezobupolitika ukuba ahlaziye indlela aqhuba ngayo. Xa iinkundla zichaza imimiselo ethile ngeendlela ezithile, iBhunga lisenokuphendula ngokuthethelela umthetho ukuze licacise injongo yalo okanye liguqule iziphumo.

Izigqibo zenkundla zikwakhokela amaqumrhu aphetheyo ekuzalisekiseni imithetho nemigaqo, zichaza ngokusemthethweni iimfuno ezingokwemigaqo kunye nokusikelwa umda komgaqo-siseko. Olu nxibelelwano phakathi kwesebe eligwebayo namasebe ezobupolitika luyeyona nto ibalulekileyo kwinkqubo yamagunya ahlukeneyo namazwe aseMerika nokuhlola kunye nokulinganisela.

Iingxaki Neengcebiso ZeNkundla Yomanyano

Ngoxa inkqubo yenkundla karhulumente iye yaphumelela ngokuphawulekayo kwiinkalo ezininzi, ijamelana nocelomngeni nogxeko olwahlukahlukeneyo olufanele luqwalaselwe.

Inkxalabo Ngokugweba

Ngamanye amaxesha abahlalutyi batyhola abagwebi besizwe nge-"judictism""-"ukwenza izigqibo ezisekelwe kwimigaqo ethandwa ngabantu kunokuba kuchazwe ngokuthembeka komthetho. Aba bagxeki baphikisa ngelithi abagwebi abangakhethwanga ngethuba lobomi babo bonke abafanele benze izigqibo zemigaqo ezifanelekileyo zokunyulwa koothunywa.

Abameli benkululeko yokugweba baphendula ngokuthi maxa wambi abagwebi kufuneka benze izigqibo ezinzima ezikhusela amalungelo omGaqo-siseko kwanaxa ezo zigqibo zingathandwayo. Bathi umGaqo-siseko ngokwawo umisela imiqathango engowona mqathango, yaye ukugcinwa kwaloo mithetho akuyonto yokwenza nokuzimisela imithetho kodwa kukunamathela ngokuthembeka kwimigaqo yomgaqo-siseko.

Iimpikiswano Ezibangelwa Kubomi Obude

Kukho abagxeki bobomi babo bonke abathi ubomi babo bonke bubangela ukuba abagwebi bahlale ixesha elide kunokuba kufuneka banjalo, emva kokuba bemdala kakhulu ukuba bangenza umsebenzi wabo kakuhle, mhlawumbi ngenxa yokuba bebadala okanye bengawaqhelanga amaxesha angoku, kwaye mhlawumbi aba bagxeki bathi, abagwebi kufuneka bamiselwe ixesha elimiselweyo leminyaka, ngeminyaka eyi-14 okanye eli-18.

Abaxhasi bobomi baphikisa ngelithi kubalulekile ukuze kuwelwe inkululeko yokugweba, kuvunyelwe abagwebi ukuba benze izigqibo ngaphandle kokoyika ukuphindwa kwezobupolitika. Ingxoxo iyaqhubeka, nangona phantse utshintsho olunje luya kufuna utshintsho olungokomGaqo-siseko, yaye amathuba okuba kwenzeke abonakale mancinane kakhulu.

Ukufikelela Kubulungisa Neengcinezelo Ezixineneyo

Iinkundla zomanyano zijamelene neengcinezelo ezinkulu, xa kubekwa amawaka etyala nyaka ngamnye. Lo mqulu ungakhokelela ekulibaziseni kwisigqibo esichongiweyo kunye nenkxalabo yokuba bonke abasebenzi bafumana ingqalelo eyaneleyo kwiimeko zabo. Ngaphezu koko, iindleko zokubekwa kwetyala kurhulumente zinokubathintela abantu abaninzi, ziphakamisa imibuzo emalunga nokufikelela kokusesikweni okulinganayo.

IBhunga lizame ukusingatha ezi zinto ngamanyathelo ahlukahlukeneyo, kuquka ukuvelisa iijaji ezongezelelekileyo, ukukhuthaza ezinye iimpikiswano, kunye neenkqubo eziqukuqelayo. Noko ke, ukulinganisela imfuneko yokuqwalasela amatyala ngokucokisekileyo kunye nemfuneko yesigqibo esifike ngexesha elifanelekileyo kuselucelomngeni oluqhubekayo.

IiNkundla zoManyano kwinkqubo yoMgaqo-siseko obanzi

Ukwahlukana ngamagunya yindlela esisiseko urhulumente wethu alungelelanisa ngayo igunya ukuze inxalenye ethile karhulumente ingalilawuli elinye, yaye ingcamango ikukuba isebe ngalinye likarhulumente linendima yalo nemimandla yalo yegunya.

Ngokungafaniyo namasebe owiso-mthetho nawamagunya alawulayo, anokuphendula ngokungqalileyo kubavoti ngonyulo, isebe eligwebayo lifumana ilungelo ngokuzimela kwalo kwaye lizibophelele ekugqibeni amatyala angokomthetho kunokuba likhethe ezopolitiko.

Iingxelo Ngamandla Eejaji

Ngoxa iinkundla zikarhulumente zisebenzisa amandla abalulekileyo, ziphantsi kovavanyo olubalulekileyo oluvela kwamanye amasebe. IBhunga liphethe amandla abalulekileyo phezu kwejaji, kuquka igunya lokuyila nokulungelelanisa iinkundla zesizwe ngaphantsi kweNkundla ePhakamileyo, njengoko kuchazwe kwiGatya III, kwaye iBhunga likwanamandla okuchaza nokumisela ulawulo lweenkundla zelifa lesizwe.

IKhomishini ilawula uqingqo-mali lweenkundla zelifa lesizwe, imisela inani labagwebi, kwaye iyakwazi ukukhupha abagwebi ngenxa yehambo evakalala. UMongameli umisela abagwebi besizwe, ephembelela ifomu kunye nolwalathiso lwejaji. Oku kuqinisekisa ukuba isebe lezomthetho lihlala linetyala kwinkqubo yomgaqo-siseko ngoxa lilondoloza inkululeko eyaneleyo ukuze liphumeze imisebenzi yalo.

Ukuxhomekeka KwamaNkundla Kwamanye Amasebe

Iinkundla zoManyano zixhomekeke kwisebe elilawulayo ukuze linyanzelise izigqibo zalo. Iinkundla zingakhupha imiyalelo nesigwebo, kodwa ziswele amandla okunyanzelisa ngqo. Isebe elilawulayo linembopheleleko yokuqinisekisa ukuba izigqibo nezigqibo zenkundla yeli zwelonke zisebenza, kwaye lo msebenzi uquka ukuphumeza imiyalelo yenkundla kunye nemithetho ethobela umthetho ngaphaya kwamasebe orhulumente.

Oku kuxhomekeka kudala uvavanyo kwigunya lokugweba − amacala kufuneka acebise izigqibo eziya kuhlonelwa kwaye zinyanzeliswe lisebe eliphetheyo. Ukutyhubela imbali yaseMerika, bekukho iingxwabangxwaba xa amagosa aphezulu ebemathidala ukunyanzelisa imiyalelo yeenkundla, ebalaselisa ukuxhomekeka ngokupheleleyo kwenkundla kwintsebenziswano yamanye amasebe.

Ikamva Leenkundla Zomanyano

Njengoko ibutho labantu baseMerika liqhubeka liguquka, iinkundla zelifa lemveli ziza kujamelana nocelomngeni olutsha namathuba. Inkqubela yezobugcisa iphakamisa imibuzo emitsha yomthetho ephathelele ukuzimela, ukuthetha ngokukhululekileyo, kunye nezinto zolwazi oluphezulu. Ukutshintsha kwesimo sengqondo soluntu kudala iimfuno ezintsha zamalungelo omgaqo-siseko. Ukudibana kwehlabathi jikelele kubandakanya imiba ebandakanya umthetho wezizwe ngezizwe kunye neempikiswano ezinqamlezayo.

Iinkundla zikarhulumente kuya kufuneka zivumelane nezi meko ziguqukayo ngoxa zigcina iindima zazo ezingundoqo zokutolika umthetho, ukukhusela amalungelo, nokuhlola igunya likarhulumente. Ulungelelwano phakathi kokuzimela geqe nezobudemokhrasi luya kuqhubeka ludityaniswa, njengoko kuya kuqhubeka kubuzwa ngendima efanelekileyo yeenkundla ekusingatheni iingxaki zentlalo.

Ukuqonda Iinkundla Zomanyano: Kubalulekile Ukuba Ubandakanyeke

Ukuqonda indlela iinkundla zikarhulumente ezisebenza ngayo kubalulekile kubemi abanolwazi. Izigwebo zenkundla yamaFederal zichaphazela phantse zonke iinkalo zobomi baseMerika, kumalungelo esinawo kumthetho esimele siyilandele.

Abahlali abayiqondayo inkqubo yenkundla yelifa lemveli baxhotyiswe bhetele ukuba babe nenxaxheba kulawulo lwedemokhrasi, bamele bawamele amalungelo abo, baze baphendule urhulumente. Enoba basebenza kumatyala aphawulekayo, balandela amatyala abalulekileyo, okanye baqonde nje indlela iinkundla ezisombululwa ngayo, ukwazi iinkundla zelifa lemveli kukhulisa ukumanyana kwezezezezedemokhrasi kwaye kuqinisa imibutho yedemokhrasi.

Abo banomdla wokufunda okungakumbi ngeenkundla zesizwe, i-website yase-United States ye- inika ulwazi olubanzi malunga nesakhiwo senkundla, iinkqubo, kunye nezindululo zangoku. Iwebhsayithi yeNkundla esemthethweni[ inikela unikezelo kwiimbono, iimpikiswano zomlomo, nolwazi ngomsebenzi weNkundla. Ubuncwane bemfundo obuvela kwimibutho efana neZiko Lemfundo [[FLT: 4.] Judial Learnity Center inceda abemi baqonde indlela iinkundla ezisebenza ngayo kwaye kutheni benjalo.

Isiphelo: Ukubaluleka Okuhlala Kuhleli Kweenkundla Zomanyano

INkundla Ephakamileyo inendima ebalulekileyo kwinkqubo yethu yomgaqo-siseko karhulumente, yaye okokuqala, njengenkundla ephakamileyo kwelo lizwe, yinkundla egqibele ukujongwa kwabo bafuna okusesikweni. Eli cebiso lisebenza ngokubanzi ngakumbi kwinkqubo yenkundla yelifa lesizwe, esebenza njengomgcini wemigaqo-siseko nakumalungelo omntu ngamnye.

Indima yeenkundla zikarhulumente wesizwe kurhulumente waseMerika ifikelela kude ngaphaya kokugqiba amatyala. Ezi nkundla zitolika umGaqo-siseko, zijonge amandla amasebe ezobupolitika, zikhusele amalungelo amancinane, ziqinisekise ukusetyenziswa komthetho wesizwe ngokufanayo, zibonelela ngequmrhu lokucombulula iimpikiswano ngokomthetho kunokuba zinyanzele. Izigqibo zazo zibumba ukuphuhliswa komthetho nebutho labantu baseMerika, ziphembelela yonke into ukusuka kumalungelo abantu ukuya kumgaqo wezoqoqosho ukuya kumthetho wezaphuli-mthetho.

Isakhiwo senkqubo yenkundla yelifa lesizwe ``nemigangatho yayo emithathu, iinkundla zayo ezikhethekileyo, kunye nolawulo lwayo oluchaziwe ngenyameko(ibalaselise ubulumko bamaFrefers' ekudaleni isebe elizimeleyo kodwa elinobutyala, elinamandla kodwa elinyanzelekileyo. Ukhuseleko olunikwa abagwebi besizwe, kuquka ubomi bobomi kunye nokhuseleko lomvuzo, luqinisekisa ukuba bangenza izigqibo ezisekelwe kumthetho nakumgaqo kunokuba babonise ingcinezelo yezobupolitika okanye umdla wobuqu.

Njengoko i-United States iqhubeka iguquka ize ijongene neengxaki ezintsha, iinkundla zephondo ziza kuhlala zibalulekile ekulondolozeni umthetho nokukhusela urhulumente womGaqo-siseko. Ukuqonda ezi nkosana (_iinkundla), amandla azo, imiqathango yazo, nendima yazo kwinkqubo ebanzi yomgaqo-siseko (isiseko solwazi lwedemokhrasi yaseMerika ngokwayo. Ijaji yephondo limele ukungqinelana nokubaluleka okuhlala kusemgangathweni wenkundla ezizimeleyo kwibutho elikhululekileyo, kwaye ukuqina kwayo okuqhubekayo kubalulekile ekulondolozeni amalungelo nenkululeko echaza ukulingwa kwe-America ngokwayo.