Imfundiso Equlunqileyo: Ukuqulunqwa kwamalungelo oManyano

Imfundiso yeNkqutyana yokuHlanganisa imele njengenye yezona nkqubela zitshintshayo kumthetho-siseko waseMelika. Ngothotho lwezigqibo zeNkundla ePhakamileyo, le mfundiso iye yasebenzisa ngokuthe ngcembe ilungiselelo leBhili yamaLungelo karhulumente nakoorhulumente basekuhlaleni, iqinisekisa ukuba inkululeko esisiseko yabemi ikhuselwe nangaliphi na iqondo lezenzo zikarhulumente. Ukuqonda iNkundla yokuHlazisa iNkuhlalo yabemi yanamhlanje kubalulekile kuye nabani na ofunda ngenkululeko yabemi basekuhlaleni.

Isiseko Sembali: Isizathu Sokuba Ukusetyenziswa Kwegama Elingcwele Kube Kuyimfuneko

IBhili yamaLungelo, eyagunyaziswa ngowe-1791, yayijoliswe ekuqaleni njengendlela yokuhlola urhulumente omtsha wengingqi. Inkundla ePhakamileyo yacacisa oku kwi- Barron v. Baltimore (1833), ibambe ukuba ukuthatha kweSindululo seNhlanu soMmiselo akuzange kusebenze kwizenzo zikarhulumente. IJaji ePhakathi uJohn Marshall yaqiqa ukuba umGaqo-siseko wamiselwa ngabantu baseUnited States, kurhulumente wabo, . [iikhulu lenkulungwane ye-19, amatyala ayekhululekile ukumisela imiqathango yokuthetha, ukuseka, okanye ukuphendla ngaphandle kweBhunga elithellu limiyo.

Emva kwemfazwe yamakhaya, iReconstructus Amendments , ngokukodwa iDescription yeshumi elinesine, yaye yenziwe ukubeka imida emitsha kumandla karhulumente. Icandelo 1 loMphetho we-14th Demende ivakalisa ukuba akukho mbuso "onokuphelisa nawuphi na umntu wobomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla, ngaphandle kwenkqubo efunekayo yomthetho. Umbuzo ongundoqo waba ngukuba ngaba "ukhuselwe" ngaba "uMsebenzi" ukhuselwe yi-Umthetho ka-Clausle" waquka amalungelo akhethekileyo akhankanyiweyo kwiBhili yamaLungelo. Kwiminyaka engamashumi amane, iNkundla Ephakamileyo iya kungavumi ukufundwa, eyona nto idumileyo kwi- iCase-Intars-Indlu [187], eyathiwe yachaza ngokucuthekayo amalungelo okanye i-Immiclaus Claussmes]

" Imbono yokuba uHlaziyo lweshumi elinesine lwalucetywe ukuba luqukelele iBhili yamaLungelo kuqala nguJaji John Marshall Harlan ekungavumelani kwakhe Hurtado v. California[ [18884]. Kodwa iNkundla ayizange iyithande loo ngcamango de kube yinkulungwane yama-20.

Indlela Yokhetho Lomahluko:

I-Incorporation Doctrine yaqalisa ukumila ngenene kwii1920. Gitlow v. New York[FLT:] (1925), iNkundla yathetha umthetho karhulumente orhoxisa ulwaphulo-mthetho logonyamelo lwabalawuli. Ngelixesha abagwebi bexhasa uBenjamin Gitlow's, bavuma okwesihlandlo sokuqala ukuba ukhuseleko lwenkululeko yokuthetha lweSinyusi sokuqala lusebenza kumazwe ngenkqubo ye-1455 Dementementment Claus. IJajistard Edward Sanford yabhala ukuba "Inkululeko yentetho kunye neyomsebenzi womsebenzi womsebenzi wecawayo wecawase-Propolate-1950" ikhuselwe yintelligement yoLungment epheleleyo epheleleyo ekwimeko oluphezulu ye-'engameleyo yobuqu kunye ne-'ibberse-'ebugraccesting'equation'ethe tractertedt's tractify's transty

Esi sibhengezo sophawu sivule amasuntswana. Nearbb. Minnesota[FL:1] [FLT] [1931], iNkundla yasebenzisa isiqinisekiso sokucofa okukhululekileyo kumaphondo, ibetha umthetho karhulumente ovumela ukuvalwa kwe "lheamore, ihlazo, kunye nehlazo" iphephandaba. DEJONGE v. [FLT] v.1937] [1937], iNkuchaza oko kumele ukusetyenziswa kwendlela yonqulo "ukusebenzisa ilungelo loxolo" i-Cantwell v v[FLT] [1940] [iiindlela echaza ukuba akukho luxandukuhlazo lwezo. Ezimeko zibonisa oko kuchazwa "umiselo oluqhelekileyo" oluditya lwe-Genesholo-Genecle-octive "ieac" oludiyokusetyenziswayokusetyenziswayokusetyenziswayokusetyenziswayoku

Impikiswano: Inkcazo iyonke vs. Intshukumo yokukhetha

IJaji iHugo Black yangqinelana ngokudumileyo "ngonyaka idityanisiwe".Imbono yokuba uHlaziyo lweshumi elinesine lwalujolise ekusebenziseni iBhili yamaLungelo kumaphondo. Kukwahlukana kwakhe kwi-"FLT:0] Adamson v. California[ (1947), ubungqina obudityanisiweyo bembali obusuka kwingxoxo ye-consolestions ukuxhasa isikhundla sakhe. Noko ke, inkoliso yeNkuNkundlalelo yala leyo igatya ulukelo olulumkelekileyo "uvavanyo olunzulu". Ngaphantsi kwalo olo vavanyo, kuphela olo lungelo "lulo luluvo lwamalungelo othe kratya" (njengoJanjam Cardozo) ichaza ngokubhekiselele kwexabiso lakhe elingephindiweyo.[FLtic:[FF] [FT] [37] [197]) lungasetyenziswa nakuko "onke amalungelo angundoqo akufuneka abekwe phakathi kwemithetho, ukuba abhalwe kanye "o" athenjiwe , kwaye abhalwe kanye "anyani"

Ukuququzelela okukhethiweyo kuye kwaphumelela. Namhlanje, phantse onke amalungiselelo eBhili yamaLungelo aye afakwa kwiSigqeba samaLungelo, kunye neemfuno eziphawulekayo ezimbalwa ezifana noMphetho-mda wesithathu (iiNgqungquthela yamajoni), imfuneko enkulu yesihlanu yokuchophela uLwiso-mthetho, kunye neSivumelwano soMmiselo wesiHlathisi seSebethi. Ilungelo lesibini lokugcina nokuphatha iingalo zoMkhosi lifakwe kwi McDonald v. Chicago [2010], kunye noMbambo we-wamanyuselo wesiHlunyuselo wesi-Xhebe

Amatyala Ayintloko Enkundla Achaza Le Mfundiso

Ngapha koko, amatyala angaphambili akhululekileyo, uthotho lwemimiselo ephawulekayo yoo1960 yandisa umlinganiselo wamalungelo adityanisiweyo ngokuphawulekayo. La matyala ahlala engundoqo kuwo nawuphi na umgaqo-siseko okanye kuludwe lomthetho.

IMap v. Ohio (1961): Ulawulo LweExcloion Luye Lwathunyelwa EUnited States

Ku Mapp v.Oo, amapolisa aphengulula ikhaya likaDollree Map' ngaphandle kwemvume esemthethweni, afumana izinto ezingcolileyo, ambambe. INkundla ePhakamileyo yaluguqula ulweyiseko lwakhe, ibambe ukuba uthintelo loMphengululo wesine ekuphengululeni okungekho ngqiqweni luyasebenza kumaphondo, kwaye umthetho wokususa (ukusetyenziswa ngokungekho mthethweni kobungqina obufunyenwe ngokungekho mthethweni) usisicombululo esibalulekile. Esi sigqibo sinyanzelo sinyanzelekile nomthetho wasekuhlaleni ukuba uthobele imilinganiselo yeSine soLawulo, utshintshwa ngendlela ephawulekayo inkqubo yolwaphulo-mthetho yesizwe.

UGideon (1963): Unelungelo lokucebisa Bonke

UClarence Earl Gideon wayelihlwempu elingekho mgangathweni eliphetheyo elityholwa ngokuqhekeza kwigumbi lokuhlala eFlorida. Wacela igqwetha kodwa walatywa ngenxa yokuba iFlorida kuphela yanikela isiluleko kwiimeko zelishwa. Inkundla ePhakamileyo ngamxhelo mnye yathi ilungelo leSithandathu lokucebisa linelungelo elibalulekileyo elisebenzayo kumazwe. Eli tyala laphumela ekudalweni kwesixokelelwano sabakhuseli boluntu kulo lonke ilizwe. Isikhumbuzo ngaphandle kwe-Florida capitol siphawula impembelelo kaGidiyon kwimithetho esesikweni.

Miranda .Arizona (1966): Ukhuseleko loku-inzwa kweCustodial

Ilungelo loMgqibo wesihlanu nxamnye nokuzichasa kwaso lafakwa kumazwana [[FLT: 0] uMalloy v. Hogan [1964]. Kwiminyaka emibini kamva, [ imanda v. Inkundla yakhiwe kweso siseko ngokufuna amapolisa ukuba axele amalungelo awo phambi kokuba avavanye i-Mirna. Ngexesha lesigqibo sithe saqhutyekwa kakhulu, iye yafakwa kwizenzo zamapolisa nakumgangatho oqhelekileyo.

UDuncan . Louisiana (1968): Ukuvavanywa kwe Jury Kwityala Elinzulu

IsiHlaliso seSithandathu samalungelo etyala labachopheli-tyala sasetyenziswa kumaphondo [ku- Duncan v. Louisiana. INkundla yathi "ukuchotshelwa kwamatyala kumatyala kusisiseko kwiqhinga lomthetho waseMerika." Eli tyala lacacisa ukuba limele linikezele nasiphi na ityala elinzulu (elichazwa njengabo bathwele isigwebo senyanga ezingaphezu kwezithandathu zokuvalelwa entolongweni).

Timbs . Indiana (209): Inkqubela Eqhubekayo

Kwanakwinkulungwane yama-21, iNkundla ePhakamileyo iyaqhubeka icacisa ukufakwa. Timbs v. Indiana, iNkundla yavumelana ukuba intlawulo yeNkundla yokuHlanganisa isebenza ngokugqithisileyo kumazwe. Inkundla iqiqa ngelithi ukukhusela kwintelekelelo egqithisileyo kungu "ukuzimisela ucwangciso lwethu lwenkululeko eyayalelweyo" Le meko ibonisa ukuba iNkquluko-Proporation Trisolice ayiyombali kodwa ingumsebenzi oqhubekayo ekutolikeni komGaqo-siseko.

Impembelelo Kwimfundo Yamakhaya Ekhululekileyo

Imfundiso yeNkcubeko iyitshintsha ngokunzulu indlela inkululeko yoluntu efundiswa ngayo kwizikolo nakwiiyunivesithi zaseMerika. Ngaphambi kokuba iququzelelwe, izifundo ezikuMgqino-nkqubo Wokuqala zisenokuba zijolise kwisenzo sorhulumente kuphela. Namhlanje, abafundisi- ntsapho kufuneka bachaze indlela amalungelo afana ngayo nakuwo onke amaqondo karhulumente.

Ukufundisa Umsebenzi Wokhuseleko Lomdyarho

Abafundi bafunda ukuba iBhili yamaLungelo inika umgangatho, hayi isilingi yokhuseleko. Ama-odolo anganikela ukhuseleko olukhulu lwenkululeko yabemi kunalolo lulungiselelwe nguMgaqo-siseko wesizwe, kodwa abanako ukuwela ngaphantsi kobuncinane obuqinisekisiweyo ngamalungelo adibeneyo. Le "ukukhulula" ngumgaqo obalulekileyo. Umzekelo, urhulumente angafuna ukunyanzeliswa komthetho ukuze afumane isiqinisekiso phambi kokufumana ugcino-lwazi lwendawo yeselfowuni olusekelwe kumgaqo-siseko wesizwe esingqongqo, kodwa ayinakuvumela ukungagunyaziswa ukuba uHlaliso lweSine (njengomquququ) lungamele lungavumeli.

Ukugxininisa indlela yophawu lonobumba

Inkoliso yezifundo zelifa lemveli ixhomekeke kakhulu kuphando lwamatyala. Imfundiso yeNqanawa inika ucwangciso lwendalo: iqala ngezigqibo zeNkundla ye- nengcamango yokuba ngummi wamazwe amabini, ehamba phakathi [ Gutlow[ kunye nokuqalisa kwexesha lokuqalisa kwexesha lokuzalwa, kwaye igqibezela kwinkqulunkcazo yeNkundla yeKhauni. Le ngxaki ikhuthaza ukucingela ngokungqongqo ngokwengqiqo esemthethweni, indima yesithethe, kunye nokucaciswa kwendlela enamandla yokucaciswa komgaqo-siseko. Abafundi basebenzisa imoot enkuqhelisa apho abafundi bedla ngokuphikisa ukuba ngaba isigaba esithile sifanele sidityaniswe nakunamandla ukuze babandakanye nengxoxo yembali ne-ntanda-ntanda-ntanda-bulumko.

Ukudibana Neengxaki Zexesha Elidlulileyo

Imfundiso yeNkqutyana ayiyombali nje. Iingxoxo zale mihla ngamalungelo eSigqibo sesibini emva McDonald v. Chicago (2010) iyanyanzela abafundi ukuba baqwalasele oko "isiseko sengqondo" kuthetha kwixesha elahlukileyo. Amalungelo obuqu kwixesha lamanani adla ngokubandakanya imibuzo yokuba ubuchule obutsha bolawulo lwesizwe buyawungqubana namaxabiso oMphengululo weSine. Ngokuqonda oku, abafundi banokubona indlela ingxubesho yeSiphendulo sesibhozo nesohlwayo esinenkohlakalo nesothu esingaqhelekanga efakwe ngayo kwi RObinson v. [FLT] [1962] [1962]]).

Ubungqina beCPF kunye noLunga lokuQhubelana

Mhlawumbi okubaluleke kakhulu, ukufunda ngokuququzelela kunceda abafundi baqonde ukuba amalungelo omgaqo-siseko akayongcamango ento kodwa ayiyondlela yokhuseleko ezichaphazela ubomi babo bemihla ngemihla. Xa umfundi emiswa ligosa lovimba wesikolo, uLawulo lweSine (luye lwanikwa ulawulo lwabadlali ngokusetyenziswa kombutho) lulawula. Xa indlu yowiso-mthetho iqwalasela umthetho othintelayo, imigaqo yoMmiselo wokuqala (equkiwe ku [FLT: 0] Gitlow[ kunye ne[FLT] DILD JE JE) imisela imida. Oku kuqonda okusebenzisekayo kukhuthaza ukulwamkelwa komthetho, nokukhuselwa komthetho wokuzinziswano komthetho wokuzingela, nokukhuthaza amalungelo abo banokuwamkela.

Imigaqo-nkqubo Esetyenziswayo Yokufundisa Umahluko

Imfundo ephumelelayo yenkululeko yasekuhlaleni ifuna okungakumbi kunoludwe lwamatyala alandelanayo.

  • Uhlaziyo lomlinganiselo: Abafundi bathelekisa iBhili yamalungelo (umda weBhunga) namandla karhulumente phambi nasemva kokuqalisa. Oku kubalaselisa ukutshintsha okuphawulekayo kwemithetho yoluntu eMelika.
  • I-Mock eququzelela iindlebe:[ Yabela amalungelo ahlukeneyo (umz., Ugqibo lwesibini, abachopheli-mthetho abazukileyo, abachopheli-mthetho basekuhlaleni) kwaye cela abafundi ukuba baphikisane nokuba bayawanelisa kusini na amaCadozo "emeko-siseko" umgangatho.
  • Ingcaphuno ezicacileyo zomthombo: Sebenzisa iingcaphulo ezifutshane ukusuka kwiimbono zophawu (umz., Ubulungisa Obumnyama] Adamson, Justice Cardozo Palko]) ukuvavanya ulwahlulo lwentanda-ntanda-bulumko phakathi kwento yonke nendibaniso.
  • Izicelo zehlabathi zokwenene: Thelekisa imithetho yombuso yakutshanje ecelw'ewe kumacandelo, njengemithetho yeFlorida "anti-riot" okanye i-Texas yokukhupha isisu (ekuquka ilungelo lokuba yimfihlo/a ekunene ayizange ichazwe kodwa ifakwe kwi-ST Proces Claus).
  • Umgaqo-siseko wesizwe njengeelabhuli: ukhuthaza abafundi ukuba baphande ukhuseleko lomgaqo-siseko wombuso wabo. Umgaqo-siseko omninzi worhulumente ukhusela amalungelo ngaphaya komzi osisiseko wengingqi (ilifa elithe ngqo lokufakwa komgangatho/ukusetyenziswa.

Ukuqhubeka Nempikiswano Nemibuzo Engaphendulwanga

Ngaphandle kokufikelela kwayo okuphantse kuphele, iConcorporation Doctrine isaqalisa impikiswano. Abanye abaphengululi boqobo baphikisa ngelithi ukuququzelela okukhethiweyo akunasiseko somGaqo-siseko esiqinileyo kwaye amalungelo oMgaqo-siseko weshumi elinesine okanye i-Immunity Reconsole Claus/asekuqaleni kucetyiswa . UJaji Clarence Thomas, ngokomzekelo, uphikisa kwiimeko eziliqela ukuba iziHlaziselo zesibini nezesine zimele zifakwe ngamalungelo omeleleyo okanye ngo-Immunicuti Claus e-Claus enokuba nguMgaqo-o-oms.

Ukongezelela, umlinganiselo wamalungelo adityanisiweyo usele uphikiswa. Ingaba uHlaziyo lwesibini luquka ilungelo lokuphatha imipu phambi kwabantu? Inkundla Ephakamileyo iphendula loo mbuzo kwiNew York State Rifle & Lamp; Pistol Association v. Bruen [2022], ukubamba oko kujoliswe kuko akufuneki "undoqo" kwiphepha-mvume elifihliweyo. Lo mthetho uxhomekeke kuhlolo oluqulukileyo olumiselwe McDonald. Ngokunjalo, ulwahlulo olusibhozo lolwahlulo luyaqhubeka lufuna ukuvelisa njengendlela yokulungisa iidilesi kunye neemeko zentolongo.

Ekugqibeleni, iNkundla yoLawulo lweMicimbi yezeMicimbi iphakamisa imibuzo ephathelele indima efanelekileyo yejaji. Abahlalutyi batyhola iNkundla ePhakamileyo yezomthetho xa inyanzelisa ukuba ivumelane namalungelo esizwe, ngoxa abaxhasi bephikisa ngelithi ukhuseleko olunjalo yinjongo yoMphengululo weshumi elinesine. Oku kwenza le mfundiso ibe ngumbandela ofanelekileyo wokuxubusha ngembali yomthetho kunye nemithetho-rhulumente.

Oovimba Abanokufundwa Ngokubhekele Phaya

Abafundisi nabafundi abafuna ubunzulu obungakumbi kwimfundiso yokuHlanganisa banokukhangela ezi zinto zilandelayo:

Isiphelo: Imfundiso Ephilayo YomGaqo-siseko Ophilayo

Imfundiso yoMthetho oPhawulayo asingomthetho omileyo kodwa yinkqubo esebenzayo eqhubeka ibumba inkululeko yaseMerika. Ukususela kwizigqibo zokuqala zoo-1920 ukuya kwiingxoxo zemipu zonyaka wama-2020, iNkundla ePhakamileyo iye yasebenzisa iSindululo soMdalelo se 144 ukuze yandise iBhili yamaLungelo kwimbombo nganye yohlanga. Abafundi, imfundiso inikela isibonakude esinamandla abafundi abanokuqonda ngaso ulawulo, ukutoliko lomgaqo-siseko, kunye nokuzibhinqisa okuqhubekayo ukuchaza amalungelo asisiseko. Ngokufunda iPrograction, abafundi baba yinxalenye yesithethe esibalaseleyo sengxoxo engokomGaqo-siseko, kwaye banyanzele ukuba akukho rhulumente umele uphange namnye umntu inkululeko enenjongo. Njengoko iNkuNkundla iqhubeka ukutolika i-ekisa i-edemGenedimente, ukusetyenziswa kwe-Geneardiationstiki ye-emental.