Table of Contents
INkundla ePhakamileyo yeUnited States imi njengeyona iphakamileyo kwinkqubo yokugweba yaseMerika, isebenzisa amandla angaqhelekanga ukubumba imithetho yesizwe, ikhusela amalungelo omgaqo-siseko, kwaye iphembelela indlela yebutho labantu. ISekelelwa kwiGatya III, Icandelo 1 lomGaqo-siseko ngo1789, iNkundla ePhakamileyo ngoku iqulethwe ngabagwebi abasithoba abasebenza njengabameli bokuphela kwemiqathango efikelela kumgangatho ophezulu wohlalutyo lwezomthetho. Ukuqonda indlela esi siko esisebenza ngayo, indlela ezizigwebo ezisenza ngayo izigqibo, kunye nesiphumo esinzulu somthetho wesakhethi esinika ukuqonda okubalulekileyo kwisiseko somthetho waseMelika kunye nolawulo lwedemo-demokhrasi.
Yintoni Inkundla Ephakamileyo Nesiseko Sayo SomGaqo-siseko?
INkundla ePhakamileyo imela isebe lezomthetho likarhulumente waseUnited States, elisebenza njengenkundla ephakamileyo kwijaji yephondo. Igunya lantlandlolo kumatyala amancinane, njengesuti phakathi kwamazwe amabini okanye ngaphezulu, kunye nalawo abandakanya amanxusa, kwaye ikwanemithetho epheleleyo yokulawula kuyo yonke inkundla yephondo kunye namatyala enkundla karhulumente abandakanya ikhomyutha-siseko okanye umthetho wezomthetho. Lo mthetho udibeneyo uvumela iNkundla ukuba iphulaphule amatyala athile ngokungqalileyo ngelixa isebenza njengenkundla yokugqibela yesibheno kwiinkundla eziphantsi.
Okwangoku, kukho amatyala asithoba kwiNkundla, yaye phambi kokuba athathe isikhundla, ityala ngalinye kufuneka limiselwe nguMongameli lize liqinisekiswe yiNdlu yeeNkulumbuso, iphethe isikhundla ngexesha lokuziphatha okuhle, okuqhelekileyo kubomi. Olu wiso lobomi bemihla yonke luyilelwe ukukhusela abagwebi kwingcinezelo yezobupolitika kwaye lubavumele ukuba benze izigqibo ezisekelwe kwimigaqo esemthethweni kunokuba bamisele imiqathango yonyulo. Umqulu weNkundla awusoloko umiswe kumalungu alithoba elithoba, kwaye uMgaqo-siseko ubeka amandla okumisela inani lemithetho esezahlulele ezandleni zeBhunga, ngeSigqisi sokuqala sewaka esi-1789, ukumisela inani elisukela kwinani elisezantsi eli-5 ukuya kwelilishumi leminyaka ephezulu, de kutsho kuMgaqo-Judia ka-9 osisithoba-9.
Igunya leNkundla lidlulela ngaphaya kokugqiba amatyala abantu ngabanye. Le Nkundla inamandla okuhlola ityala, amandla okuphelisa umthetho wokwaphula ilungiselelo lomGaqo-siseko okanye isenzo sokulawula sokwaphula umthetho, nangona isenokusebenza kuphela phakathi komongo wetyala kummandla womthetho apho inegunya. Eli gunya lohlolo lwezomthetho, nangona lingachazwanga ngokucacileyo kumGaqo-siseko, lamiselwa ngenkqubo engokomGaqo-siseko kwaye lihlala lingumnye wemisebenzi ebalulekileyo yeNkulwa.
IGovernment of Judicial Review: Marbury v. Madison
Enye yeengcamango ezisisiseko kumthetho-siseko waseMelika kukucaciswa kwetyala, kwaye igunya leNkundla ePhakamileyo ukugqiba enoba imithetho edluliswa yiKhonkcotho okanye zizenzo ezithatyathwa lisebe elilawulayo zivumelana nomGaqo-siseko. Eli gunya alizange linikwe ngokucacileyo kumGaqo-siseko kodwa lamiselwa ngelinye lamatyala abalulekileyo kwimbali engokwasemthethweni eMelika.
Ngesigqibo seMarbury v. Madison, iNkundla yawisa umthetho wokuba iBhunga alinawo amandla okubeka imithetho elawula umGaqo-siseko, inika isebe lezahlulelo amandla okugqiba enoba izenzo zeBhunga zazingumGaqo-siseko okanye akunjalo, ngempembelelo enkulu yeNkundla esekelwe kwesi sigqibo namandla okuhlola isigwebo. Uluvo lweNkongozelo John Marshall kweli tyala li-1803 lwayiguqula ngokubhekiselele njongo yeNkundla ePhakamileyo, imisela ukuba ibe lisebe likarhulumente elilinganayo elinegunya lokuhlola amagunya eBhunga kunye noMongameli.
Umgaqo ochazwe kwi-Marbury v. Madison uhlala esembindini kumsebenzi weNkundla namhlanje. Ngalo lonke ixesha iNkundla Ephakamileyo igatya umthetho njengongavumelaniyo okanye iphakamisa umthetho ocetyiweyo, isebenzisa amandla okuhlola isigwebo amiselwa ngaphezu kweenkulungwane ezimbini ezidlulileyo. Eli gunya lenza iNkundla ibe ngumgcini obalulekileyo wamalungelo omgaqo-siseko kunye nokuhlola okokuba urhulumente angaqhatha.
Indlela Awafikelela Ngayo Amatyala ENkundla Ephakamileyo
INkundla Ephakamileyo ayiphulaphuli onke amatyala afuna ukubekwa phambi kwawo. Enyanisweni, izicelo ezininzi zokuhlolisiswa kweNkundla Ephakamileyo ziyakhatywa. Inkoliso yamatyala athethwa yiNkundla Ephakamileyo zibhena kwiinkundla eziphantsi, kwaye inkqubo yokufumana ityala phambi kwamatyala ibandakanya iinkqubo eziliqela ezingqalileyo.
Isicelo Seceritari
Akukho lungelo lipheleleyo lokuba iNkundla iphulaphule isibheno, kwaye umntu ofuna ukubhenela kwiNkundla makafake isicelo sokucela isiqinisekiso seCertiori. Igama elithi "certiori" livela kwisiLatini, elithetha "ukuxelelwa," kwaye umela isicelo seNkundla ePhakamileyo sokuhlola isigqibo senkundla ephantsi.
Inkundla ifumana izibongozo ezimalunga nama-7 000-8 000 kwibinzana ngalinye lesibeleko, kodwa iNkundla iyanika ize iphulaphule impikiswano edluliselwa ngomlomo kwiimeko ezimalunga nama-80. Oku kuthetha ukuba izicelo ezingaphantsi kwe-12% zamkelekile ukuze zihlolwe ngokupheleleyo. Abagwebi bakhetha kakhulu amatyala abakhetha ukuwaphulaphula, babhekisa ingqalelo kwabo banentsingiselo ephezulu engokwasemthethweni okanye abo bacombulula iingxabano phakathi kweenkundla eziphantsi.
Ulawulo Lwezine
Isigqibo sokunika ityala leCertiorari asifuni uninzi (*) kuphela kuphela kumatyala asithoba kufuneka luvume ukunikezela ngeqhinga lesibeleko. Le "Nqanawa yesi-4" iqinisekisa ukuba amatyala amancinane abalulekileyo anokuzisa phambi kweNkundla epheleleyo ukuze aqwalaselwe, nokuba uninzi lungathandabuza ekuqaleni.
INkundla isenokunika inkundla yesizwe imvume yokuphelisa ingxabano ekhoyo, okanye xa ityala linentsingiselo ebanzi yesizwe. Xa iinkundla zesibheno zeli lizwe ezahlukeneyo zifikelela kwizigqibo eziphikisanayo ngalo mbandela usemthethweni, iNkundla ePhakamileyo idla ngokuthatha amanyathelo ukusombulula loo ngxabano ize imisele umthetho olinganayo kulo lonke ilizwe.
Iindidi Zetyala Lenkundla Ziyaviwa
Ngeli xesha amatyala amaninzi eNkundla Ephakamileyo efika kwinkqubo yeCertiorari, iNkundla ikwanegunya lokuqala kwiintlobo ezithile zempikiswano. Amatyala awela phantsi kolawulo lwantlandlolo lwenkundla aye ngqo enkundleni, ngaphandle kokuba netyala okanye isibheno kwinkundla esezantsi kuqala, kwaye ngokwesithethe ezi zinto zibandakanya izinto ezifana neempikiswano phakathi kwemiqathango emibini okanye emininzi kwimicimbi efana namalungelo amanzi, okanye phakathi kwamazwe norhulumente.
Ulawulo lwezomthetho lweNkundla kumgangatho wayo wezibuko luyinkqubela-phambili yale mihla. Ngaphambi konyaka ka-1975, iindidi ezininzi zamatyala zathwala ilungelo elizenzekelayo lokubhenela kwiNkundla ePhakamileyo, ithetha ukuba abagwebi babengenalo ubuchule kwimiba ababeyivile, kodwa oko kwatshintsha ngeJaji enguMongameli William Howard Taft, eyathi imigudu yayo yakhokelela ekudlulisweni koMthetho weJadicary ka1975, eyathi yaqinisa inkqubo yecala njengendlela engundoqo yeNkuhlola okuphakamileyo. Oku kwavumela iNkundla ivumele ukuba iNkundla iqwalasele ixesha layo elilinganiselweyo kunye noovimba bayo kwimibuzo ebalulekileyo engokwasemthethweni ejongenesizwe.
Inkqubo yokwenza isigqibo seNkundla Ephakamileyo
Xa iNkundla ePhakamileyo ivuma ukuva ityala, ilandela inkqubo ecwangcisiweyo equka ukubhalwa kwemifutshane, iingxoxo zomlomo, iingqungquthela zangasese, nokuqulunqwa kwezimvo. Ukuqonda icandelo ngalinye lale nkqubo kutyhila indlela abantu abasithoba abaneentanda-bulumko ezahlukeneyo zomthetho abasebenza ngayo kunye ukucombulula eminye yemibuzo enzima yesizwe.
Ibhalwe Ngemifutshane Neempikiswano Zomthetho
Ukuba ngaba abagwebi bagqiba ukwamkela ityala, ityala libekwa edokisini, kwaye ngokwemithetho yeNkundla Ephakamileyo, umceli unexesha elithile lokubhala ufutshano, hayi ukugqitha kumaphepha angama-50, ukubeka ityala lakhe elisemthethweni malunga nenkupho iNkundla evumela ukuba ihlole ngayo, emva kwayo umphendulayo unikwa ixesha elithile lokufakela uxwebhu olufutshane, kwaye akagqithi ngamaphepha angama-50.
Ezi ngxelo zifutshane zimela iimpikiswano ezingundoqo ezinikelwa kwicala ngalinye leNkundla. Zicaphula imizekelo enxulumeneyo, amalungiselelo omgaqo-siseko, ulwimi olusemthethweni, kunye neenkcazo ezixhasa ukuma kwabo. Ubunjani bezi ngxoxo zifutshane bungaphembelela ngokuphawulekayo indlela abagwebi abacinga ngayo ngetyala phambi kokuba kuqaliswe impikiswano edluliselwa ngomlomo.
Abantu okanye amaqumrhu angengawo amaqela kweli tyala ayakwazi ukunikezela iimfihlelo ezifutshane, ezibizwa ngokuba yi-amicus curiae, okanye ama-amicus mifushane, nge "amicucuriae" ethetha "umhlobo wenkundla" ngesiLatin, kwaye ubuncinane kwinkcazelo, injongo yezi mfutshane kukuncedisa iNkundla ekugqibeni ityala, ngamanye amaxesha namatyala amaninzi kakhulu anemiba emininzi kakhulu ye-amic mishwas/i Donbbs, umzekelo, kukho amafutshane angaphezu kwekhulu ali- 140. Ezi zihlobo-ams-ams ezifutshane zivumela imibutho enomdla, angokwasemthethweni, amaqela eencwadi, oorhulumente, kunye namaqela e-advotacioksi avumelane iimbono zazo kwindlela yokulawula iNkundla.
Iimpikiswano Zentetho Ngaphambi Kwenkundla
Xa iNkundla ihleli, iintlanganiso zikawonke wonke ziqalisa ngokukhawuleza ngeye - 10 kusasa, ngokuba ngabagwebi badla ngokuphulaphula iimpikiswano ezimbini ezithethwayo kusasa, kulungiselelwe iintlanganiso zasemva kwemini ngamathuba athile ngendlela eyimfuneko, yaye iintlanganiso zikawonke wonke zidla ngokuqhutywa ngoMvulo, ngoLwesibini nangoLwesithathu.
Abagwebi bafunda imifutshane kwityala, kwaye iNkundla ePhakamileyo ibamba impikiswano edluliselwa ngomlomo, xa amagqwetha amacala ngamacala ethetha ngetyala lawo kwaye abagwebi babuza imibuzo, nezi mpikiswano zidla ngokuhlala phantsi kweeyure ezimbini. Ngexesha leempikiswano, amagqwetha adla ngokuphazamisa amagqwetha ngemibuzo ecacileyo, iingcinga ezithelekelelwayo, kunye nocelomngeni. Oku kunika ingqiqo kwindlela abacinga ngayo abagwebi baze bavumele ukuba bavavanye amandla eengxubusho zabo.
Iimpikiswano zomlomo zisebenza iinjongo ezininzi. Zivumela izigwebo zicacise iingongoma ezisenokuba azicaciswe kwimifutshane ebhaliweyo, zihlole iziphumo ezisebenzayo zemithetho eyahlukeneyo esemthethweni, kunye nomqondiso kusebenza nabo ukuba ziziphi iinkalo zetyala abazifumana zibaluleke kakhulu. Kumagqwetha, impikiswano edluliselwa ngomlomo imela ithuba elibalulekileyo lokucenga iNkundla, nangona iziphumo zisoloko ziphenjelelwa kakhulu yimifutshane ebhaliweyo kunye nophando lwangaphambili.
Ingqungquthela yamalungisa
Xa kuqukunjelwa impikiswano yomlomo, abagwebi kufuneka bagqibe ityala koko kwaziwa ngokuba yiNgqungquthela yeJaji, naxa iNkundla isecwangciso, kukho iinkomfa ezimbini ezicwangcisiweyo ngeveki [1] enye emva kwemini ngoLwesithathu nangenye emva kwemini ngoLwesihlanu. Ezi nkomfa ziphakathi kwezona nkalo zifihlakeleyo zezenzo zeNkundla ePhakamileyo.
Ngokwemithetho elandelwayo yeNkundla Ephakamileyo, kuphela amatyala avunyelwayo kwigumbi leNgqungquthela ngeli xesha, "akukho mapolisa, akukho basemabhalaneni, oonobhala, njalo njalo." kwaye iJaji eyiNtloko ibiza intlanganiso ukuba ilungelelanise kwaye, njengomqondiso wesimo sequmrhu eligunyazisiweyo, zonke izigwebo ziyaxhawulana. Le sithethe sokuxhawulana phambi kwengqungquthela sigxininisa ukuba phezu kwazo iimpikiswano ezingokwasemthethweni, abagwebi bahlala behlonelana njengezisebenzi ezisebenza kunye.
Ngokwemithetho elandelwayo yeNkundla Ephakamileyo, bonke abagwebi banethuba lokuchaza iimbono zabo kwityala baze baphakamise nayiphi na imibuzo okanye inkxalabo abasenokuba nayo, ngokusesikweni ngako konke bethetha ngaphandle kwesiphazamiso esivela kwabanye, njengoko iJaji enkulu ithetha into yokuqala, ngoko iJaji nganye ithetha ngokuthoba umgangatho ophezulu, iphela ngolona bulungisa buncinci. Le ngxubusho iqinisekisa ukuba ilizwi ngalinye lemithetho elisesikweni liyaviwa kwaye abagwebi abakhulu abalawuli abalawuli incokolo.
Xa iingxelo ziphelile, iJaji ePhakamileyo ivota kuqala, kunye neNdlela yokuHlanganisa izigwebo ngokuhla komyalelo waphezulu, ngokuvota, kwaye ngoko kugwebo olukhethiweyo ukubhala uluvo lweNkundla. Ityala ngalinye linevoti enye ekugqibeni amatyala aphikisanayo phambi kwenkundla, kwaye xa kuthe kwabaninzi, ijaji eyintloko igqiba ukuba ngubani obhala uluvo lwenkundla; kungenjalo, oyena mphathi-mthetho omkhulu unegunya lomsebenzi.
Iimbono Zokubhala Nezokukhuthaza
Xa uluvo loninzi lulungile, umbhali wetyala ulijikelezisa kwiNkundla epheleleyo, yaye ngelo xesha naliphi na elinye ityala lingagqiba "`kwi" uluvo, lingacela utshintsho kuluvo ngaphambi kokuba lithelele, okanye ligqibele ukubhala uluvo olwahlukileyo. Le nkqubo yokujikeleza ingenza uhlaziyo olubalulekileyo njengoko umbhali wembono esebenzela ukugcina iqela elikhulu lombutho.
Emva kokuba uluvo loninzi lujikeleza, nakuphi na ukungavumelani kuya kusasazeka, kwaye ngamanye amaxesha okungavumelaniyo nokusesikweni kulinda ukuba afunde uluvo lwabaninzi ngaphambi kokubhala, kodwa ngamanye amaxesha unokuba nedrafti elungele ukuhamba ngokukhawuleza xa ukwenziwa kwenkcazelo yoluvo koninzi kujikeleza ngamathemba okuguqula ezinye izigwebo. Kwimeko ezinqabileyo, ukungavumelani kwendlela kusenokuziguqula iivo zomntu wokuqala ziguqule oko kwakuchasene nolu mbono lwaninzi.
Kwezinye iimeko, ngezantsi. Ngokufuthi ezona ziqwalaselwe kakhulu zingomnye okanye ezininzi zingabhala uluvo oluphikisanayo, zicacisa isizathu sokuba zingavumelani noninzi, kwaye omnye okanye abagwebi abaninzi bangabhala uluvo olukhawulezileyo. Ngokufuthi bavumelana noninzi ukuba ngubani ofanele aphumelele kule meko, kodwa banika ezinye iingcamango ezithelekelelwayo ngendlela yokucinga ngempikiswano yesiseko kwimeko. Ezi mbono zokwahlukana zinokuba nempembelelo ekulungiseni iziganeko zomthetho zexesha elizayo, njengokuba namhlanje uninzi lunokuba nembono yomphumo.
Yintoni Eyenza Isigqibo "Sophawu Lomhlaba"?
Asizizo zonke izigqibo zeNkundla Ephakamileyo ezinobunzima obulinganayo okanye ezibalulekileyo. Ngoxa iNkundla igqiba amatyala amaninzi egama ngalinye, zimbalwa kuphela ezikhunjulwa njengenguqulelo yenene. Izigqibo zophawu zezo zigqibo ezithi ngokusisiseko zimisele imithetho emitsha yeMelika, imisele emitsha yomgaqo-siseko, ikhusele amalungelo asisiseko, okanye ibhukuqe imiyilo emide.
Izigqibo ezibonisa ityala lelizwe ziyayitshintsha indlela ocaciswa ngayo umthetho okhoyo eUnited States, yaye eso sigqibo sisenokuwumisa umthetho ngandlel ’ ithile, kuquka ukwahlula umgaqo omtsha ophucula umgaqo okhoyo, ngaloo ndlela usuka kuqheliselo lwangaphambili ungaphulanga mthetho wokujonga, okanye umisele uvavanyo okanye umlinganiselo ongenakulinganiswa onokusetyenziswa ziinkundla kwizigqibo zexesha elizayo.
Oothunywashe abaninzi banegalelo kwisigqibo sokufikelela incopho ephawulekayo. Ityala linokusombulula umbuzo obalulekileyo ngamalungelo omGaqo-siseko, njengenkululeko yokuthetha, ukukhusela okulinganayo, okanye inkqubo efanelekileyo. Lisenokumisela isiseko esitsha somthetho esiza kusetyenziswa ziinkundla ezisezantsi kangangamashumi eminyaka ezayo. Okanye lingasibhukuqa isigqibo sangaphambili seNkundla Ephakamileyo ejongwa ngokubanzi njengengalungisiyo okanye engqubananga nemilinganiselo yomGaqo-siseko.
Amatyala eNkundla Ephakamileyo alawula imbali kwaye anempembelelo kubemi abangawuthobeliyo umthetho namhlanje. Ezi zigqibo zidlulela ngaphaya kwenkundla yenkundla, ziphembelela imibutho yentlalo, iingxoxo zezobupolitika, kunye nobomi bemihla ngemihla bezigidi zamaMerika. Ukuqonda la matyala abalulekileyo kunika umongo obalulekileyo wokuqonda indlela ibutho labantu baseMerika eliye laguquka ngayo nendlela imigaqo-siseko esetyenziswa ngayo kwiingxaki zanamhlanje.
Izigqibo Zophawu Lwamalungelo Asekuhlaleni Nomgangatho
Ezinye zezigqibo zeNkundla ePhakamileyo ezithe zaneziphumo eziphambili ziye zathetha ngemibuzo yamalungelo abantu, ukulingana kobuhlanga, kunye nocalucalulo. La matyala aye anceda ekuchazeni oko kuthethwa kukulingana phantsi komGaqo-siseko kwaye aye aqhubela phambili kwiinguqulelo ezinzulu zentlalo.
Brown v. ibhodi yemfundo (1954)
Brown v. Board of Education (1954) yenye yezona tyala zidumileyo nezinempembelelo kwimbali yaseMerika, njengakwisigqibo esimanyeneyo, iNkundla yavakalisa ukuba imithetho karhulumente emisela izikolo zikawonke wonke zabafundi abaNsundu nabamhlophe yayingezomthetho-siseko. Esi sigqibo samela ixesha elithe shwaka kwimbali yamalungelo abantu baseMerika.
Isigqibo seBrown sibhengezwa njengesigqibo esiphawulekayo kwimbali yeNkundla Ephakamileyo, sibhukuqa iPlesty v. Ferguson (1896) eyayidale imfundiso "yohlukene kodwa elinganayo". KwiPlesty v. Ferguson (1896), iNkundla ePhakamileyo yavuma ukupheliswa ngokuxhasa imfundiso "yohlukene kodwa elinganayo" kodwa i-Umanyano lwesizwe lokuqhubele phambili kwabantu abaphili-mthetho aluvumelani nesi sigqibo, ivavanya ukuma komgaqo-siseko we-lonke eTopeka, eKansaska, inkqubo yesikolo, kunye no195495, iNkumbuso yasiguqula isigqibo sayo sePlesley, ivakalisa ukuba "izikolo ezihlukeneyodwa azifani ngokuzenzekelayo".
Isigqibo seBrown asizange siphelise ngoko nangoko uqobo lwesikolo ``ukugqibezela ukuxhathisa okukhulu kwicala elikhulu lelizwe. Noko ke, yaseka umgaqo-siseko wokuba ucalucalulo olukhutshiwe ngurhulumente lwaphula i-Uncil Protection Clause ye-145th Amendment, inika isiseko esisemthethweni sombutho wamalungelo oluntu obanzi wama-1950 nawoma 1960.
Virginia (1967) enothando
Elinye ityala lamalungelo abantu elibalaselelwe kwimithetho ekwalela umtshato owenziwe ngabantu abahlukahlukeneyo. KwiSiviko soMgaqo-siseko Virginia, iNkundla ePhakamileyo ngamxhelo mnye yaphelisa ukuvalwa komtshato weentlanga eVirginia, ikholelwa ukuba imithetho enjalo yawuphula umthetho woKhuselo olulinganayo lukaClauslease kunye neThe Intery Procesme Claus of the I14th Amendment. Isigqibo saphelisa imithetho efanayo kumaphondo ali-16 saza saqinisekisa ukuba ilungelo lokutshata linkululeko esisiseko engenakuthintelwa luhlanga.
Obergefell v. Hodges (2015)
Ngo-2015, iNkundla Ephakamileyo yanika izibini ezingoonongogo ezilinganayo ezikwi-Obergefell v. Hodges. Inkundla yathi iNkundla ifuna ukuba abantu ababini besini esifanayo batshate kwaye ibone iqhina lomtshato elinjalo lisenziwa kwamanye amazwe. Esi sigqibo sabonisa incopho yamashumi eminyaka yokukhutshwa kweLGBTQ+ amalungelo yaye ngokusisiseko saguqula umgaqo-siseko osemthethweni ngokuphathelele umtshato waseMelika.
Izigqibo Zophawu Lokusesikweni Kwamatyala Namalungelo Abo Bamangalelwe
INkundla Ephakamileyo iye yakhupha izigqibo ezininzi eziphawulekayo ezichaza amalungelo abantu abatyholwa ngolwaphulo - mthetho, imisela imiqathango ekhusela ukugcinwa komthetho nenkululeko engokomGaqo-siseko.
Miranda v. Arizona (1966)
EMiranda kunye noArizona ngowe - 1966, iNkundla Ephakamileyo yaqwalasela amatyala amane ahlukeneyo apho abamangalelwa bavuma khona ukuba baphule umthetho emva kokuba bebanjiwe baza bancinwa ngamapolisa bengaxelelwanga ilungelo labo lokuba negqwetha, igosa elibizwa ngokuba nguErnesto Miranda, elabanjwa lipolisa libuthiwe linguPhoenixa yaye ligwetyelwa ngokuqweqwedisa nokudlwengula, yaye uMiranda akazange axelelwe ukuba unelungelo lakhe lokucebisa, yaye emva kokuncinwa iiyure ezimbini, wavuma ulwaphulo - mthetho.
Kwisigqibo esingu-5-4, iJaji ePhakamileyo u-Earl Warren wavuma ukuba ukuncinwa kwale ngxaki kwaphule ukhuseleko loMgaqo-nkqubo wesihlanu wokuzidityanisa. INkundla yafumanisa ukuba uHlomelo lwesihlanu nolweSithandathu lufuna amapolisa ukuba azise abantu abaselugcinweni ukuba banelungelo lokuthula nokuncedwa ligqwetha.
Isigqibo sikaMiranda sakhokelela kwiso sigqibo sikhoyo ngoku-fuliar "iMiranda" esimele sinikelwe ngamapolisa phambi kokuncinwa kwetyala: "Unelungelo lokuhlala uthe cwaka. Nantoni na othe wayithethayo isenokusetyenziswa kuwe kwinkundla yomthetho. Unelungelo kwigqwetha. Ukuba awunalo igqwetha, elinye liya kunikelwa kuwe. Ezi zilumkiso zibotshelelwe kakhulu kwizithethe zasemthethweni zaseMelika kwaye zimela ukhuseleko olubalulekileyo ekuvumeni izono ezinyanzelelwayo.
UGideon . Wainwright (1963)
INkundla yathetha enoba umGaqo-siseko ufuna ukuba nawuphi na umntu omangalelwa ngetyala, kodwa engakwazi ukuhlawula igqwetha, aqinisekise ukuba uya kuncedwa ngesisa ngesiluleko esisemthethweni, yaye ngokweNkundla ePhakamileyo engqineke kunye, impendulo yayiewe, njengoko iNkundla yayisithi uLawulo lweSithandathu olunelungelo lokunceda kwisiluleko luyasebenza kwiinkundla zolwaphulo-mthetho yaye "amagosa enkundla yezaphuli-mthetho azimele zifuneke, hayi ubunewunewunewu."
Kunye nelungelo lokunceda abamangalelwa bezaphuli-mthetho baseburhulumenteni, isigqibo sikaGidiyon saba nomphumo wokwandisa iinkqubo zokukhusela uwonke-wonke kulo lonke ilizwe. Esi sigqibo saqinisekisa ukuba ubuhlwempu abuyi kuthintela abamangalelwa ukuba bafumane imvume esemthethweni eyaneleyo, ngokusisiseko iguqula inkqubo yokugweba yolwaphulo-mthetho nokukhusela amalungelo abamangalelwa abagwebi abangomamelanga.
Map v. Ohio (1961)
KwiMap v.Ohio, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yamisela umgaqo "wokuphengulula," ephethe obu bungqina bufunyenwe ngokuphanda okungekho mthethweni nokuxhuzula akunakusetyenziswa kumatyala olwaphulo-mthetho asemthethweni. Esi sigqibo sandisa uKhuseleko lwesine lokuLandlwano ngokukhusela iinkundla zephondo ekuphandweni ngokungekho ngqiqweni nasekuxhuzumeni, sidala isithintelo esinamandla nxamnye nokuziphethe kakubi kwamapolisa nokukhusela amalungelo emfihlelo.
Izigqibo Ezibonisa Inkululeko Yokuthetha Namalungelo Okuqala Okwenziwa Kwemimiselo
Ukhuseleko loMphetho wokuqala wenkululeko yokuthetha, yokushicilela, yonqulo neyombutho luye lwaba ngumbandela wezigqibo ezininzi ezibalaseleyo zeNkundla Ephakamileyo eziye zachaza umlinganiselo nemida yezi nkululeko zisisiseko.
I-Tinker v.Des Moines (1969)
Ukuzondelela imfazwe yaseVietnam, uMary Beth Tinker nomkhuluwa wakhe babenxiba iingalo ezimnyama esikolweni, yaye besoyika ukuphazamisa, ulawulo oluthintelweyo olulahliweyo ekunxibeni iintambo ezinjalo, kodwa abaTinki babesuswa esikolweni xa bengazange bathobele, kwaye iNkundla Ephakamileyo yagqiba kwelokuba izenzo zabo zikhuselwe yiMthethweni Wokuqala. Isindululo esidumileyo seNkundla yabafundi ukuba abafundi aba "bagxothi amalungelo abo omgaqo-siseko enkululeko yokuthetha okanye yokuthetha kwisango lesikolo" sasungula izikhuseli ezibalulekileyo zokuthetha kwabafundi.
UTexas . Johnson (1989)
Ukuqhayisa imithetho yolawulo lukaReagan, uGregory Lee Johnson watshisa iflegi yaseMerika ngaphandle kweHolo yesiXeko saseDallas, wabanjwa ngenxa yesi senzo, kodwa wavumelana ukuba yayiyintetho yokomfuziselo, yaye iNkundla ePhakamileyo yavuma, igqiba kwelokuba intetho yokomfuziselo ikhuselwe ngokusemthethweni naxa ichasene nomgaqo-siseko. Esi sigqibo sididayo sangqina ukuba uMphengululo wokuqala ukhusela kwaneentlobo ezigqwethayo zezopolitiko.
Schenck v. waseUnited States (1919)
Le Nkundla yathetha enoba intetho ethile, kuquka ukuthumela amaphecana achasene nemfazwe ukuba abhalise amadoda, enziwe ngexesha lemfazwe kwaye egqalwa njengokwaphulwa kwesigqibo seEspionage Act, yakhuselwa nguMthetho wokuQala wokuLawula, ilawula, kwaye nangona ummangalelwa wayenokukwazi ukuchaza iimbono zakhe ngamaxesha aqhelekileyo, iNkundla yabambelela ekubeni kwiimeko ezithile, njengohlanga olusemfazweni, ithethelela imida kwiSinyuselo Sokuqala, ngesigqibo esingcono sikaSchenc esaziwa ngokuyila "Ible nengozi ekhoyo" intsingiselo yokuba intetho ibinokuthintelwa ukuba ichaza ingozi ecacileyo nekhoyo.
Ngelixesha "licacile nelikhoyo" uvavanyo luye lwalungiswa zigqibo ezilandelayo, uSchenc wamisela umgaqo wokuba ukhuseleko loMphetho wokuqala lungagqibelelanga kwaye intetho ingathintelwa kwiimeko ezithile ezilinganiselweyo xa ibeka iingozi zokwenyaniso kukhuseleko lukawonke-wonke okanye kukhuseleko lohlanga.
Izigqibo Zophawu Kumandla Norhwebo Lwamasebe
INkundla ePhakamileyo iye yadlala indima ebalulekileyo ekuchazeni ukulungelelana kwamandla phakathi koorhulumente borhulumente norhulumente, ingakumbi ngokuphathelele igunya leeBhunga lokulawula urhwebo lwamazwe ngamazwe.
McCulloch v. Maryland (1819)
INkundla yagqiba kwelokuba imithetho ye-United States iphumeze imithetho yesizwe kwaye ngenxa yoko, urhulumente akanakukwazi ukuhlawula ibhanki yesizwe, kwaye isigqibo seMcCulloch samisela imigaqo emibini ebalulekileyo yomthetho womGaqo-siseko esiqhubeka namhlanje: ichaza amagunya kunye nobukhulu borhulumente. Esi sigqibo sangaphambili samiselwa ukuba urhulumente wesizwe unamagunya angaphaya kwalawo adweliswe ngokucacileyo kumGaqo-siseko kwaye umthetho karhulumente uthathe indawo yokuqala kunemithetho ephikisanayo.
Gibbons v. Ogden (1824)
INkundla yathi yindima karhulumente wesizwe ukulawula ezorhwebo kwaye oorhulumente bakarhulumente abanako ukuvelisa imithetho yabo yezorhwebo elawulayo, kwaye iNkundla yavelisa ingcaciso ebanzi ye "umbutho," iqiqa ngelithi eli gama liquka okungaphezulu kunokuthengisa nokuthenga nje, ngempembelelo yamaGibbon esavakalayo namhlanje njengoko inika urhulumente wesizwe isiseko esithelekelelayo sokulawula imicimbi yezoqoqosho. Le nkcazelo ibanzi yeCommercioc Clause ibone isiseko somgaqo-siseko somgaqo-siseko wemithetho karhulumente wale mihla.
Izigqibo Zophawu Ngamalungelo Okuzala
Zimbalwa iindawo zomthetho-siseko eziye zadala impikiswano enkulu kunye nengxoxo kawonke-wonke njengamalungelo okuzala, kunye nezigqibo zeNkundla ePhakamileyo kulo mmandla zichaphazela kakhulu izigidi zamaMelika.
Roe v. Wade (1973)
INkundla yagqiba kwelokuba imithetho ethintela ukuqhomfa iphazamisa ilungelo lomGaqo-siseko lokukhupha inzala, kwaye ikholelwa ukuba, phantsi koMgaqo-siseko weshumi elinesine Wokwenziwa kweSimiliselo se-Austement Claus, ingakumisela kuphela ukuqhomfa ekupheleni kokukhulelwa, ukuze kukhusele ubomi bomfazi okanye bomntwana osandul'ukuzalwa. Malunga namashumi amahlanu eminyaka, Roe v. Wade wamisela ilungelo elisemthethweni lokuqhomfa kwaye wadala ilungelo lokuzibandakanya amalungelo ayimfihlo amabhinqa kunye nezilangazelelo zikarhulumente ekukhuseleni ubomi.
Dobs v. Jackson Women’s Health Organization (2022)
Le ngxelo yaqala xa umxhasi wokuqhomfa waseMississippi ekuphela kwakhe wacell ’ umngeni umthetho wesizwe ka-2018 okwalela phantse zonke iiveki ezili-15 zokuqhomfa emva kokumitha, kunye nenkundla esezantsi nekliniki yempilo, efumanisa ukuba umthetho waphikisana nomzekelo weNkundla ePhakamileyo ekwamiselwa eRoe nasePlanned Parenthood v. Casey, kodwa kwiDobts v.
INkundla yathi umGaqo-siseko awuqinisekisi ilungelo lokuqhomfa, njengokuba eli lungelo lingakhankanywanga ngokucacileyo kumbhalo, kwaye alingokwaneleyo "ukusekelwe ngokunzulu kwimbali nesithethe sohlanga" ukuthathwa njengelungelo elifunekayo phantsi kweNkqubo ka-Celas. Esi sigqibo samela enye yezona zimo zibalulekileyo zokutshintsha imbali kwiNkundla Ephakamileyo, ukubuyisela umthetho wokuqhomfa kumazwe ngamanye kwaye sidala ithala lemithetho eyahlukeneyo yokuqhomfa kulo lonke ilizwe.
Izigqibo Ezibalaseleyo Zokwabelana Ngamalungelo Nenxaxheba Kwezobupolitika
INkundla Ephakamileyo iye yakhupha izigqibo ezininzi ezichaphazela amalungelo okuvota, inkxaso - mali nenxaxheba kwezobupolitika, nto leyo eye yabangela ukuba kubekho ulawulo - melo lwaseMerika.
Buckley v. Valeo (1976)
Kwisigqibo esinempembelelo efikelela kude kwinkqubo yezemali yephulo, iNkundla yawisa imida yokusetyenziswa kwephulo, iqiqa ngokusekelwe kwisiseko esisisiseko: imali echithwa kwinkqubo yezobupolitika luhlobo lokuthetha, kwaye ngenxa yoko, yagqiba kwelokuba ukuthintelwa kwenkcitho kuthintele ukuthethwa kwezobupolitika ngokwako, ngesigqibo sokuchitha iphulo elingenamiqathango elichithiweyo ixesha elide elingekho mdlalo karhulumente onyanzelisayo wokusilela ummiselo.
INkundla yawuxhasa, nokokuba, iwuxhasa umqathango kwiminikelo yamaphulo ezobupolitika, iwisa umthetho wokuba kwakuyimfuneko ukuphikisa "inyaniso okanye ukubonakala kwempembelelo engafanelekanga" abanikela ngentlawulo abaninzi ababenokuba nayo kubanyuli. Lo mahluko phakathi kweminikelo nenkcitho useke umthetho wezemali kamashumi eminyaka, ukuvumela ukusetyenziswa okungenasiphelo kwabathathi-nxaxheba kunye namaqela azimeleyo ngoxa egcina imiqathango ethile kwiminikelo ethe ngqo kumaphulo.
Izigqibo Zophawu Lwamalungelo Emipu
Isithili saseColumbia v. Heller (2008)
Ngo-2008, iNkundla Ephakamileyo yakhupha umthetho wesiGqeba sesibini weSihlalo seColumbia v. Heller, kunye nesigqibo sokubulala imithetho emininzi yemipu engqongqo yaseWashington D.C., eyayiquka ukuvalwa komlo wemipu kwabemi bobucala, njengaseHeller, iNkundla yawisa umthetho wokuqala wokuba umGaqo-siseko ukhusele ilungelo labemi baseMelika lokuba nemipu ekhaya ukuze bazikhusele kwaye bazikhusele.
Phambi kweHeller, abaphengululi abaninzi abasemthethweni baxhasa ukuchazwa okuncinane kweSihlaziywa sesibini, okujoliswe ekuqulunqeni ilungelo lokulungiselela umkhosi kunokuba kukhuselwe ikhaya likabani kunye/okanye impahla yakhe. Isigqibo seHeller sayitshintsha ngokusisiseko iSend 2 Demendment Reconstruprial ngokumisela ilungelo lomntu ngamnye lokuphatha izixhobo ngokwahlukeneyo nenkonzo yemikhosi.
Lo mthetho awuwuthinteli wonke umthetho wokulawula imipu, ngoko ke, ekubeni ufuna ubuchule obungakumbi kubenzi bomthetho, yaye nangona ukuvalwa kwemipu ngokungqalileyo kungasagqalwa njengomgaqo-siseko, eminye imithetho ekwimipu isenokumiselwa, yaye kunokuba ikwale ukuvalwa kobunini bemipu, izixeko zidlulise iimfuno ezingqongqo okanye amaxesha anyanzelekileyo okulinda, nabenzi bomthetho besenza ubuchule obungakumbi, besabele phambili kwiNkundla ngokuyila ezinye izicombululo zemithetho yokucombulula ulwaphulo-mthetho nogonyamelo lwemipu.
Indima Yokuqhatha Nokukhanyisa
Enye yemigaqo esisiseko ekhokela ekwenzeni isigqibo seNkundla ePhakamileyo kukujongwa kwamehlo, ibinzana lesiLatin elithetha "ukuma ngokwezinto ezigqitywe." Le mfundiso ithi iinkundla zifanele zilandele imizekelo emiselwe kumatyala angaphambili, zinika uzinzo nokuxelwa kwangaphambili kwenkqubo engokwasemthethweni.
Noko ke, iNkundla ePhakamileyo ayibotshelelwa ngokupheleleyo zisigqibo sayo sangaphambili. Kusukela ngowama-2020, inkundla yalawula imizekelo yayo kumatyala aqikelelwayo angama-232 ukususela ngowe-1810. INkundla ingasibhukuqa isigwebo xa igqiba kwelokuba isigqibo sangaphambili sasigqitywe ngokuphosakeleyo, singqinelwe ukuba asisebenzi, okanye siyaphikisana neziganeko ezilandelayo ezingomthetho.
Uxanduva phakathi kokuhlonela umzekelo nokulungisa iimpazamo zexesha elidluleyo ludala iimpikiswano eziqhubekayo kwiNkundla. Ezinye izigwebi zigxininisa ukubaluleka kokuzinza nokuxelwa kwangaphambili, ziphikisa ngelithi imizekelo mayiphendulwe kuphela kwiimeko ezithile. Abanye baphikisa ngelithi iNkundla imele ilungise iimpazamo zomgaqo-siseko, nokuba ukwenjenjalo kubandakanya ukubhukuqa imizekeliso emide.
Impembelelo Yezigqibo Zophawu Kuluntu LwaseMerika
Izigqibo zeNkundla Ephakamileyo ezilawula umhlaba zimisela imizekelo esemthethweni elawula inkqubo yokuyila nokuphunyezwa kwezi zigqibo. Imiphumo yezi zigqibo idlulela nangaphaya kwamaqela ababandakanyekileyo ngokuthe ngqo kumatyala, iphembelela umthetho, izenzo zolawulo oluphezulu, izigqibo eziphantsi zenkundla, kunye nobomi bemihla ngemihla bezigidi zamaMerika.
Xa iNkundla ePhakamileyo ikhupha isigqibo esiphawulekayo, idla ngokubangela intsebenziswano yeziphumo. Imithetho isenokufuna ukuhlaziya imimiselo ukuze ihambelane nomgaqo omtsha womgaqo-siseko. Kusenokufuneka ukuba abameli bakarhulumente batshintshe imithetho yabo kunye nezenzo zokunyanzelisa. Iinkundla ezisezantsi kufuneka zisebenzise imizekelo emitsha xa kukhangelwa amatyala. Yaye abantu kunye nemibutho ilungisa indlela abaziphatha ngayo ngokusekelwe kwimithetho echanekileyo.
Ezinye izigqibo eziphawulekayo zijongene nokuchaswa okuphawulekayo kwaye zithatha iminyaka okanye amashumi eminyaka ukuze ziphunyezwe ngokupheleleyo. Ngokomzekelo, iBrown brown nebhodi yemfundo, yavakalisa ukuba ukwahlulwa kobuso besikolo akunagunyaziso ngo-1954, kodwa izikolo ezininzi zahlala zicalucalulwe iminyaka emva koko, zifuna imiyalelo eyongezelelekileyo yenkundla, imithetho yorhulumente, kunye nezenzo zokunyanzelisa ukuze zifikelele kwintsebenziswano enentsingiselo.
Ezinye izigqibo zidala ukuthotyelwa ngokukhawuleza kodwa zibangela iingxoxo eziqhubekayo zezobupolitika nezentlalo. IObergefell yenza isigqibo sokuvumela umtshato ongokwasemthethweni kwilizwe lonke sasebenza ngoko nangoko, kodwa iingxoxo ezingenkululeko yonqulo, amalungelo okukhulisa abantwana, neminye imibandela enxulumene neLGBTQ+ ukulingana.
Iingqikelelo Nokulungelelana: Ukusikel ’ Imiqathango Amandla Enkundla Ephakamileyo
Ngoxa iNkundla Ephakamileyo isebenzisa amandla abalulekileyo ngokuhlolisisa isigwebo nangendima yaso njengetoliko lokugqibela lomGaqo-siseko, iNkundla isebenza kwinkqubo yokuhlola nokulinganisela elinganisela igunya layo.
IBhunga linganyusa inani labagwebi, linike umongameli amandla okuphembelela izigqibo zexesha elizayo ngokumiswa, kwaye iBhunga lingakhupha umthetho othintela igunya leNkundla ePhakamileyo nezinye iinkundla zephondo kwimibandela ethile nakumatyala, njengoko kucetyiswa ngolwimi kwiCandelo 2 leGatya leSiThathu, apho igunya lenkqubo linikwa "nazo iiNtloko ezikhethekileyo, kwaye ngaphantsi kwemithetho enjengeyamaBhunga.
Ukongezelela, izilungiso zomgaqo-siseko zingasiguqula isigqibo seNkundla Ephakamileyo. Xa iNkundla ichaza umGaqo-siseko ngendlela iMgaqo-siseko neyamazwe angayifumaniyo, zinokuwuguqula umGaqo-siseko ngokwawo ukuze umisele umthetho owahlukileyo. Oku kuye kwenzeka izihlandlo eziliqela kwimbali yaseMerika, njengaxa uHlaziyo lweshumi elinesine lwayibhukuqa isigqibo sikaDred Scott sokuba amaMerika aseAfrika akazukuba ngabemi.
INkundla ikwaxhomekeke kwisebe eliphetheyo ukunyanzelisa izigqibo zalo. Njengoko uAlexander Hamilton waphawulayo kwiFederalist No. 78, ijaji ayi "nampembelelo kwikrele okanye kwisikhwama" kwaye kufuneka ixhomekeke kwisebe eliphetheyo ukuzalisekisa imiyalelo yalo. Oku kuxhomekeka kuveza olunye uvavanyo kumandla enkundla.
ISimiselo SeNkundla Ephakamileyo
Igama ngalinye liquka amaxesha atshintshileyo malunga neeveki ezimbini ezaziwayo njenge "zihleli" ne"zingcingo zokuva," kunye nezigwebi ezigwebayo kunye nokuhambisa imithetho ngexesha lokuhlala, ngelixa bexubusha izimvo nokubhala izimvo ngexesha lokuphumla. Eli lungiselelo lilungelelanisa iimfuno zokuva iingxoxo zomlomo kunye nomsebenzi omkhulu wophando, wokubhala, nokulungisa iimbono zabo.
Iimpikiswano ezingoonongogo ziqukumbela ngoAprili nangexesha eliseleyo leNkundla ikhupha imiyalelo nezimvo, kunye neNkundla iphumla ekupheleni kukaJuni, kodwa umsebenzi wamatyala awupheli, njengakwihlobo ayaqhubeka ehlolisisa izibongozo ezintsha zokubukeza, aqwalasele iintshukumo nezicelo, yaye kufuneka enze amalungiselelo amatyala acwangciselwe ukuqukunjelwa iimpikiswano ezithe zaqukunjelwa.
Umjikelo wonyaka weNkundla wenza indlela ecacileyo xa kubhengezwa izigqibo eziphambili. Amatyala athanda ukuphikisana nawajongwa ngokusondeleyo asoloko egqitywe ngoJuni, njengoko abagwebi besebenza ukugqiba iimbono zabo phambi komjikelo wehlobo. Eli xesha lithetha ukuba izigqibo eziphawula iziganeko zembali zisoloko zifika ngezihloko ezikufutshane ekupheleni kweli gama, zibangela ukugqumathelwa ngokunzulu kwejelo-ndaba kunye nengqalelo yoluntu.
Indima Yabefundisi Bomthetho Kwisigqibo Senkundla Ephakamileyo
Ijaji nganye yeNkundla ePhakamileyo isebenzisa oomabhalana abaliqela abaqeshwayo abaphumeleleyo kwisikolo somthetho kutshanje abaphumelela ngokungaqhelekanga ngokwemfundo. Aba babharnabhari benza indima ebalulekileyo kumsebenzi weNkundla, nangona impembelelo yabo ingafani phakathi kwabagwebi.
Phambi kokuba baye kwiNkomfa, abagwebi basoloko bexubusha ngetyala elifanelekileyo nababhali-mthetho babo, befuna ukufumana iimbono ezahlukileyo kwityala, kwaye ekupheleni kwezi ntlanganiso, maxa wambi abagwebi banembono elungileyo ngendlela abaya kuvota ngayo kule meko; amanye amaxesha, abangekabikho semthethweni. Oomabhala-mthetho bahlola imibandela engokwasemthethweni, babuye bahlole izibongozo ze-certiorari, izicelo zebhedri yengxelo yengxelo yamatyala phambi kwengxoxo yomlomo, kwaye basoloko belungiselela iidraftidiss.
Imithetho emisela indlela aza kuvota ngayo ukwamkela okanye ukungasifuni isicelo ngasinye se-certiorari, ngokuqhelekileyo ecela ukuba umthengisi womthetho ahlolisise isicelo, ngokusebenzisa isibhozo sobulungisa besixhobo se-"cert". Kwiqula lesibeleko, ababhali-mthetho abathabatha inxaxheba kumagumbi okulawula basebenza kunye ukuphinda izibongozo kunye nokulungiselela umsebenzi owenzelwayo phakathi kwabagwebi abathabatha inxaxheba, bevumela ukuphunyezwa ngokunempumelelo kwamawaka ezicelo ezifakwe nyaka ngamnye.
Umthetho weNkundla Ephakamileyo
Amandla eNkundla ePhakamileyo ekugqibeleni axhomekeke ekuvunyweni kwabantu ngokubanzi ngokusemthethweni nokuvuma kwabo nokuvuma ukuthobela izigqibo zabo. Ngokungafaniyo namasebe karhulumente anyuliweyo, iNkundla ayinakuthetha ukuba ingumyalelo othe ngqo wedemokhrasi, isenza uluntu luthembe ukungakhethi kwayo.
Kwiminyaka yakutshanje kuye kwahlolwa kakhulu indima yeNkundla nokufaneleka kwayo. Inani lemimiselo yengingqi yemida eliye lehla ukusuka kwi-avareji emalunga nama-50% ukuya ku-30% kwi-2021 ngexesha imigaqo yeqela inyuka ukusuka kwi-60-minyaka i-avareji ngaphezu kwe-0 ukuya kutsho kwingxelo ephezulu 21%, uRyan Williams ekhombe kwivoti yeqela ukwenzela ukungqinela iingqino zobulungisa njengobungqina bokuba inkundla ibaluleke kwiNdlu.
Uphando lwe-AP-NORC lwabonisa isi-7 kwabali-10 abathe bakholelwa ukuba inkundla igqiba amatyala oku "lunga iingcamango zabo" ngokuchasene "nokusebenza njengovavanyo oluzimeleyo kwamanye amasebe orhulumente ngokuba nengqiqo nokungakhethi-calulo". Ezi mbono ziphakamisa imibuzo ebalulekileyo malunga nendlela iNkundla enokulondoloza ngayo ukunyaniseka kwayo nokuthembana kwabantu ngexesha elinzima kwezobupolitika.
Ikamva Lezigqibo ZeNkundla Eziphakamileyo
INkundla Ephakamileyo iyaqhubeka ijongene nemibuzo emitsha engomgaqo-siseko eya kubumba umthetho nebutho labantu kumaxesha azayo. Ubugcisa obudibanisayo buphakamisa imibuzo emitsha ngokuphathelele ukuzimela, ukuthetha ngokukhululekileyo kunye nokujongwa ngurhulumente. Izimo zengqondo eziguqulayo zentlalo zidala iingxoxo ezintsha ngokulingana namalungelo omntu ngamnye. Yaye iingxubano zezobupolitika eziqhubekayo zidala ukuphikisana okufanelekileyo ngokulungelelana kwamandla phakathi koorhulumente norhulumente.
Izigqibo zeziganeko eziphawulekayo zexesha elizayo zingathetha ngemibandela enjengeyobuntlola obungeyoyamvelo kunye nokwenziwa kwemithetho-mithetho, ukutshintshwa kwemozulu kunye nomthetho wemeko-bume, umgangatho wamandla olawulo oluphezulu kwiimeko zongxamiseko, amalungelo ovotelo kunye nolawulo lonyulo, inkululeko yonqulo kwibutho labantu elanda iiyantlukwano zomGaqo-siseko, nokusetyenziswa kwemigaqo-siseko kwiimigangatho zonxibelelwano zezentlalo-ntle.
Njengokuba ezi ngxelo zifikelela kwiNkundla ePhakamileyo, abagwebi baza kuqhubeka nesithethe eside sesi siko sokutolika imigaqo ehlala ihleli yomGaqo-siseko ngokweemeko zale mihla. Izigqibo abazenzayo ziya kuba yinxalenye yengxoxo eqhubekayo malunga noko kuthethwa ngumGaqo-siseko nendlela ukhuseleko lwawo olusebenza ngayo kucelomngeni olutsha olungalindelekanga ngabaFramesi.
Ukuqonda Indima YeNkundla Ephakamileyo Kulawulo - melo LwaseMerika
INkundla ePhakamileyo inesikhundla esikhethekileyo kurhulumente waseMerika njengelungu elingakhethwanga elinamandla okuphelisa izenzo zobugxwayiba obunyuliweyo ngamagosa olawulo lwedemokhrasi. Le ndima idibene nomthetho ibangela inkxwaleko engokwemvelo kodwa ikwasebenza imisebenzi ebalulekileyo ekukhuseleni amalungelo omGaqo-siseko nasekulondolozeni umthetho.
Ngokusebenza njengotoliko lokugqibela lomGaqo-siseko, iNkundla ikhusela amalungelo amancinane ekucinezeleni kwabaninzi, iqinisekisa ukuba izenzo zikarhulumente zivumelana nemiqathango yomgaqo - siseko, icombulula iimbambano phakathi komgangatho owahlukeneyo karhulumente naphakathi kwamasebe awahlukeneyo, yaye inika ukuzinza nokuxelwa kwangaphambili ngophuhliso lwemigaqo engokwasemthethweni.
Ukuqonda indlela iNkundla ePhakamileyo eyenza ngayo izigqibo eziphawulekayo ngezantsi kusibongozo sokuqala sengxoxo edluliselwa ngomlomo, iinkomfa zabucala, iinkomfa zoluvo, kunye nempapasho yokugqibela . "Inkqubo yokuzimela ngokucokisekileyo ukumisela imithetho ebumba umthetho nebutho labantu baseMelika." Nangona izigqibo ezithe zanganyelwayo kwaye izigwebo zisenokungavumelani ngokuphandle ngokubhekisele kutoliko lomgaqo-siseko, isiko ngokwalo ngokwalo liselilungundabeni ledemokhrasi yedekhrasi yaseMerika.
Kubemi abafuna ukuqonda urhulumente nomthetho waseMerika, ulwazi ngendima yeNkundla ePhakamileyo kunye nezigqibo eziphawula iziganeko zendalo lubalulekile. Ezi zigqibo zichaphazela amalungelo asisiseko, ukubumba inkqubo kawonke-wonke, kwaye zibonakalisa impikiswano eqhubekayo ngemilinganiselo yomGaqo-siseko. Ngokufunda amatyala ophawulo-siseko nokuqonda inkqubo yokwenza kwesigqibo seNkundla, amaMerika anokuba nenxaxheba ngokungcono kwintetho yedemokhrasi ngentsingiselo yomGaqo-siseko kwaye abendakanyeke kwimibandela engomthetho echaphazela ubomi bawo.
Izigqibo zeNkundla ePhakamileyo zimela okungaphezulu kunemithetho esemthethweni kuphela, zenza kube nokuqondwa kwemigaqo yezomgaqo-siseko, zibonakalisa ukutshintsha kwemilinganiselo yentlalo, kwaye zibonisa indlela uxwebhu olubhalwe ngaphezu kweenkulungwane ezimbini ezigqithileyo oluqhubeka ngayo lukhokela idemokhrasi yaseMerika. Njengoko iingxaki ezintsha zivela kwaye ibutho labantu liqhubeka liguquka, iNkundla ngokuqinisekileyo iza kukhupha izigqibo ezintsha ezizizincopho eziza kuqwalaselwa njengezibalulekileyo kwimbali yezezezentlalo yaseMelika.
Abo banomdla wokufunda okungakumbi ngeenkqubo zeNkundla ePhakamileyo kunye neemeko zengqalelo, oovimba abaxabisekileyo baquka iwebhsayithi yeNkundla ePhakamileyo, [[FLT:] U.S. izibonelelo zokufundisa kwimiqathango yeNkundla ePhakamileyo[, [[FLT]], [[FLT] SCOMYMBYYY[ kusasazo lwangoku lwezindaba zeNkundla ePhakamileyo kunye nohlaluzo, umGaqo-siseko woMgaqo-siseko woMgaqo-siseko weNkuhla weNkundla wemfundo yomgaqo-siseko, kunye iprojekthi yeprojekthi ye-owe-owe-me.[FT:9]