INkundla Ephakamileyo NjengomGawulayo

INkundla ePhakamileyo yaseUnited States ingumxhasi opheleleyo wentsingiselo yomgaqo-siseko, esebenzisa amandla okubumba umthetho nebutho labantu ngokweenkcazelo zayo. Ngokungafaniyo namasebe owiso-mthetho kunye negunya, aphantsi kweengcinezelo ezidumileyo kunye nezopolitiko, iNkundla yenzelwe ukusebenza ngokuzimeleyo, ikhusela izigwebo zayo ekuphenduleni uluntu ngokuthe ngqo ukuze kulondolozwe umthetho. Oku kwahlulwa kwesakhiwo kuqinisekisa ukuba umGaqo-siseko .

Igunya leNkundla alifumaneki kwikrele okanye kwisikhwama semali, kodwa kumandla ayo okuqiqa, ukunyanzelisa, nokuyalela intlonelo ngeembono ezicetywe ngenyameko. Ngaphezu kweenkulungwane ezimbini, iNkundla ePhakamileyo iye yazisombulula iimbambano eziye zachaza imida yamandla karhulumente, inkululeko yomntu ngamnye, kunye nokuzinzisa ingxabano phakathi kwamazwe. Ukuqonda indlela iNkundla esebenza ngayo kunye nesizathu sokuba izigqibo zayo ziphatheke ngobunzima obunjalo kubalulekile kuye nabani na ofuna ukufikelela inkqubo karhulumente waseMerika.

Isiseko Sembali: Inqaku III NeNkundla Yokuqala

Abaqulunqi bemithetho yoMgaqo-siseko baqonda ukuba icandelo elinamandla lejaji laliyimfuneko ukuvavanya ukugqithisa kweBhunga kunye noBungameli. IGatya III lomGaqo-siseko wase-U.S. yaseka iNkundla ePhakamileyo enye kwaye yanika iNkqutyana igunya lokuyila iinkundla ezisezantsi zikarhulumente. IMithetho yeJaji yowe-1789, eyatyikityelwa nguMongameli uGeorge Washington ngoSeptemba 24, 1789, yayila iNkundla ePhakamileyo enelungu eliPhakamileyo yeNkundla ePhakamileyo neMigaqo yeMigaqo yeSihla emihlanu neMithetho-yoNtloko-iiiiPronots / kwaye yamisa iSimiselo seNt.

Inkundla yokuqala yajamelana nocelomngeni olubalulekileyo. Yaphelelwa likhaya elisisigxina, lifuduswa phakathi kweNew York, iPhiladelphia, kwaye ekugqibeleni iWashington, D.C., kwaye yasebenzisa impembelelo encinane xa ithelekiswa namanye amasebe. IJay yokuqala iNgoma, uJohn Jay, warhoxa ekubeni yirhuluneli yaseNew York, ijonge iNkundla njengesakhiwo esibuthathaka. UMatshi oPhakamileyo waqalisa ukuqinisa igunya layo, waguqula inkundla encinane yaba yisebe likarhulumente elilinganayo. Ulawulo lukaMarshall nomthetho obalulekileyo kwi [[FLT:] Marbury v. Madison [FLD] [FLD] [FOLD] [1:] [18]) wasungula umgaqo wokuhlola, imodensile yeNkuguqula imothelela imo yeNkulawula.

Imisebenzi yeCore yeNkundla Ephakamileyo

Ngoxa izibuko leNkundla liquka iinkundla ezahlukahlukeneyo, iimbopheleleko zalo ezisisiseko zikwiindidi eziliqela ezixhasa umgaqo - siseko.

Ukutolika UmGaqo-siseko

Umsebenzi obaluleke kakhulu weNkundla Ephakamileyo kukutolika umbhalo woMgaqo-siseko nokuwusebenzisa kwimibuzo yale mihla engokwasemthethweni. Oku kubandakanya ukuhlalutya intsingiselo yantlandlolo yamalungiselelo omgaqo-siseko, ukuqwalasela umongo wembali, nokuvavanya imizekelo engokwembali. Iindlela zokucacisa le Nkundla ziyahlukahluka: ezinye iinkundla zinamathela kwinkcazelo yoqobo (zifuna ukuqonda umbhalo ngendlela ebewunokuqondwa ngayo ngexesha lokudityaniswa komgaqo-siseko, ngoxa abanye besamkela intsingiselo yolu xwebhu yokuguquka kweeNkutshintsha kwezentlalo-ntle).

Ngokomzekelo, I-direcule of Columbia v. [2008], iNkundla yathi uHlaziyo lwesibini lukhusela ilungelo lomntu lokuzirhweba ngezixhobo ekhaya, ibhukuqa amashumi eminyaka ekwakuchaphazele ukuma okusekunene njengokubotshelelwe kwinkonzo yemikhosi. Esi sigqibo siphinde sayitshintsha imithetho yemipu ezweni lonke kwaye siyaqhubeka nokuphembelela ukusetyenziswa kwemiqathango yemipu. Ngokufanayo, .CIIIIIIIthi ye-United.FEC (20) (20) yachaza kwakhona isiHlamkelo sokuqala sokuHlazisela ulawulo sokuLungisa ukuvumela kunye namamanyano ukuba achithe imali ezimeleyo kwinkciso yezopolitiki, iprojective.

Impinda yezeejaji: Ukukhangela imithetho nezenzo ezinolawulo

Uhlolo lwezeejaji ngamandla eNkundla ePhakamileyo ukuvakalisa umthetho okanye isenzo seNkundla ePhakamileyo ngaphandle komthetho okanye ulawulo oluphezulu yaye ngoko ke siphuthile. Eli gunya, lokuqala liqinisekiswe kwi- Marbury v. Madison, alidweliswanga ngokucacileyo kumGaqo-siseko kodwa lisuka kumsebenzi weNkundla ukuchaza oko umthetho. Xa ityala linikelwe ngokufanelekileyo ukuma, ukuvuthwa, kungekho mbuzo wezobupolitika, kwaye kungekho `iNkundla ingayibetha imimiselo edluliselwe yiBhunga yesizwe, imithetho yesizwe, imimiselo ekhutshwe ngamaqumrhuluneli, kwane nezenzo zikaMongameli.

Enye yezona ndlela zibalulekileyo zohlolo lwezobulungisa yenzeka kuMphathi oselula Phepha kweThrome Co. ISawyer (1952), xa iNkundla yenza uMongameli Truman angabi namsebenzi wokuphatha izigalo zentsimbi ngexesha lemfazwe yase Korea. INkundla yathi uMongameli wayengenalo igunya elisemthethweni lokuthatha eso senzo ngaphandle kogunyaziso lwengqungqungquthela. Kutshanje, [[FLTLT:2] kwiMvumelo wokhuseleko lwaseModyland v. Regets zeYunivesithi yaseKhalifoni[FLT] [FLT:] 2020], iNkundla yavala ulawulo lweTrumpmp ukuzama ukuphelisa uKhuselo olukhuselweyo lwe-Olvective (DAC), inkqubo yokulawula ye-ADCCCCC.

Ukucombulula Iingxabano Phakathi Kwamazwe

UMgaqo-siseko unika ulawulo lweNkundla ePhakamileyo kulawulo lokuqala kumatyala apho urhulumente elilungu. Ezi mpikiswano zisoloko zibandakanya imigca yomda, amalungelo amanzi, okanye iziqu ezidibeneyo. Ngenxa yokuba akukho rhulumente omnye onokuthi amelane nezinye, iNkundla isebenza njenge-oyile-m. Imizekelo iquka Kansas v. Nebraskas [2015], eyalungisa impikiswano emalunga neBhunga loMfuleni, kunye neziphumo zomthetho ezigqibekileyo.

Ukukhusela Amalungelo Omntu Ngamnye

Kuyo yonke imbali yayo, iNkundla ePhakamileyo ibiyinkqubo ebalulekileyo yokukhusela amalungelo omntu ngamnye nxamnye norhulumente. IBhili yamaLungelo ekuqaleni yayisebenza kurhulumente worhulumente worhulumente, kodwa ngeMvume yoGunyaziso . ICento eqale ngokunyanisekileyo ekuqaleni kwenkulungwane yamashumi amabini] isongezelele ukhuseleko oluninzi lweNkundla yoQala, yesihlanu, yeSihlanu, neyesi-Empire, kwiMimiselo ye-14 yeSinyuko ka-Claus Claus. Oku kuququze iNkumbele ukuba iNkundla ikwazi ukubetha imithetho ephazamisa inkululeko yokuthetha, edityaniselana, intlanganiso, ulawulo, inkqubo yezolwaphulo-mthetho, kunye neyolwaphulo-mthetho-mthetho-mthetho-mthetho-mthetho-mthetho.

Izindululo zamalungelo abantu ezinikwe ifashoni zijongene nocalucalulo lobuhlanga, ukulingana kwesini, amalungelo okuvota, kunye nokugweba. Brown v. Ibhodi yemfundo (1954), iNkundla yavakalisa ukuba izikolo ezithenjiweyo azinagunyaziswa. IGideon v. [[FLT:][FLT]] [[FLT]] [1963], iqinisekisa ilungelo lesiluleko sommangaliso wolwaphulo-mthetho. [[FLT]

Imeko Ephawulekayo Eyalohlwaya Olu hlanga

Ukuhlolisisa imbali yezomthetho yaseMerika kutyhila indlela iNkundla eye yaguquka ngayo nendlela isigwebo sayo esiqhubeka ngayo siphinda siphinde sibonakale.

Marbury v. Madison (103)

Eli tyala lavela kwingxaki yezobupolitika emva konyulo lonyaka wekhulu lewaka linye. UMongameli John Adams wamisela inani labagwebi bephondo kwimihla yokugqibela yolawulo lwakhe, kodwa ezinye iinkokheli azinikelwanga phambi koThomas Jefferson. UWilliam Marbury, omnye wabamiselwe, owenzelwe ukunyanzelisa ukunikezelwa kogunyaziso. USosiba weSizwe uJames Madison, ukuba anyanzele ukunikezelwa kweKhohlo. UJastile John Marshalls, ebhala kwiNkundla edibeneyo, wavakalisa ukuba nangona uMarbury wayenelungelo lokuyamkelelwa, iNkubetho ayikwazanga ukunikezela ngenxa yokuba umthetho uthi iNkundla (igunya 13 yeMithetho ye-Judiary yangowewaka) iyawuyeka. [5] Inkundla yeNkugqiba i-Acrome.[10]

Brown v. ibhodi yemfundo (1954)

Igqitywe phantsi kweJaji enkulu u-Earren, Brown v. Ibhodi yemfundo yarhoxa i-“imfundiso ehlukeneyo kodwa elinganayo” emiselwe ku Pnety v. Ferguson[ [1896]. INkundla yagqiba kwelokuba ucalucalulo lohlanga kwizikolo zasekuhlaleni lwaphule ukhuseleko olulinganayo lwe-Indaclaus e-Information. Uluvo lwaziwayo luphawule ukuba “izakhiwo zemfundo ezininzi azilingani.[FLT][FLT:] [[FLT]] [FLT]] [FLD:5] zayalgcelw [iiiice] ngokomthetho wamalungelo abantu kunye nemigudu yoluntu] kuzo zonke iimeko zobomi.

Roe v. Wade (1973)

.Roe v. , iNkundla yavuma ilungelo lomgaqo-siseko lobucala elibandakanya isigqibo somfazi sokuqhomfa. Ukubhalela abaninzi, uJaji Harry Blackmun wakholelwa ukuba i-'Imogue Procement Claus'sting Demence' ye 1450 Dementement ikhusela ilungelo lomfazi lokuphelisa ukukhulelwa kwakhe, ngokubeka umthetho osekelwe kwisiseko somjikelezo wendlela ebanzi. Isigqibo sabangela impikiswano enkulu yezobupolitika nentlalo eqhubekayo namhlanje. KG.KLD] KW. iNquluks.[FLT][2][202], iNkundla yezomthetho [FLT] [FFFF] [5] ibuyisela umgaqo-mthetho wokukhupha isisusombululo.

Obergefell v. Hodges (2015)

[[NTLK: 0] iNkundla yeNkundla ikholelwa ukuba uLawulo lweNkcubeko lweshumi elinesine lufuna ukuba onke amazwe agunyazise izivumelwano phakathi kwezibini ezingokwasemgangathweni kunye nokuqaphela imishado eyenziwa kwamanye amazwe. UJaji Anthony Kennedy uluvo lwabaninzi lwagxininisa ukuba ilungelo lokutshata liyinkululeko esisiseko ekhoyo kwingcamango yokuzilawula. Isigqibo esidaliweyo somtshato owenziwe ngomlinganiselo omnye noweshumi elinesibini [FLBT+ advogie.] [FLT: FLT] [5], [FFFF]

Impembelelo Ebanzi YeNkundla Ephakamileyo Kuluntu

Izigwebo zeNkundla Ephakamileyo azinanto yakwenza nayo; zinxibelelana nezobupolitika, neembono zikawonke wonke, kunye nenkqubo kawonke - wonke ngendlela entsonkothileyo.

Imithetho elawulayo

Xa iNkundla ePhakamileyo iwisa umthetho, idla ngokubangela ukuphendula kwemithetho. IBhunga lingawubhala kwakhona umthetho wokulungisa isiphene somGaqo-siseko, ukudlulisa ulungiso lomgaqo-siseko (rare), okanye ukwamkela nje ummiselo. Umzekelo, emva kwe-United States v. Morrison [2000] [2000]) inxalenye encitshitshisiweyo yogonyamelo nxamnye noMgaqo-siseko, iBhunga alizamanga ukuphinda livume ilungiselelo phantsi kwengcamango eyahlukileyo. Ngokuchasene noko, uGando-ntle wobuzwe we-Edenti. [[FLT][FLT] [FLT] [2010]) ixhasa i-Afford Carence Act njengolawulo lweNkohloko, kodwa inkundla yeNkuvonga enokuthi inganyuselwa ukuba inyuswe ukuba isetyenziswe ngokwemithetho ethile, i-othe yemithetho emiselwe, emiselwe, emiselwe ukuba i-M.

Ukujija umgaqo-nkqubo kawonke wonke ngokusetyenziswa kweqhinga

Isigqibo ngasinye seNkundla ePhakamileyo simisela umzekelo omele ulandelwe ziinkundla ezisezantsi kwiimeko ezifanayo. Oku kudala iziphumo ezithe kratya ukutyhubela inkqubo yomthetho. Isigqibo somxholo omnye. "njengemithetho yokususwa kwetyala ku Map v. Ohio (1961]) okanye imanda[[ izilumkiso [[FLT]]] [[FLT]] izilumkiso [[FLT]] [[FLT]] [irty] [irti]] [[iiiiiiiiiiiiiiqingo zesebe lolawulo lwesebe] [isebe lolawulo oluphezulu] elinobungachasisa ngayo imigaqo yemithetho ethile yemithetho elawulayo okanye imigaqo-mthetho engoonkethothotho. [[FLT]

Ukukholosa Ngoluntu Nomthetho WeNkundla

Igunya leNkundla ePhakamileyo ekugqibeleni lixhomekeke ekuvunyweni kwabantu ngendima yayo. Xa iNkundla ithetha ngemithetho echaphazelekayo, ibeka ityala elingeyoyanto kwezobupolitika okanye idelela. Abameli kunye nabameli baye bazama ukubumba ulwalathiso lweNkundla kwinkqubo yokutyunjwa, kwaye bayalifuna isakhiwo esitsha ngokunjalo njengemiqathango, ibhedre enwenwe, okanye imigaqo engqongqo yemithetho yokuziphatha.

Ucelomngeni Lwangoku Nokuqhubeka Uphakanyiswa

Namhlanje, iNkundla ePhakamileyo ijongene nengxubusho exhotyiswe ngamanyathelo aphezulu: ukuqhomfa, amalungelo emipu, uvumo lwesenzo sonqulo, umgaqo wemekobume, kunye namandla amasebe akhoyo. INkundla yangoku, enee-6-123 ezithe ngcici, ibonise ukukulungela ukubhukuqa iqhinga nokusebenzisa ingqiqo yokuqala kwiimeko ezifana [[FLT: 1]] namatyala akutshanje [[FLT:]] neNew York York Rifle & Pistol Association. Bruten[FL:] [202]) [20]. Ngoku, ithenjiswa ngumthetho othe kratya uphazamiso-phaza-m]

Phakathi kwezi mpikiswano, iNkundla ihlala iyinkundla yokugqibela yokucombulula imibuzo enzulu yomgaqo-siseko. Indima yayo njengonogada womGaqo-siseko ifuna ukuba ibe yeyomgaqo-siseko kwaye ilungelelane, ilungelelanise ukunyaniseka kwinjongo yabaseki nokusabela nemigaqo egqwethekileyo yentlalo. Ngoxa iNkundla ingasoze ikhululeke ekugxekweni, amandla ayo okusebenza njengommeli othembekileyo uya kugqiba impilo yedemokhrasi yomgaqo-siseko waseMelika.

Isiphelo

INkundla ePhakamileyo yaseUnited States ayiyonkundla yezothutho lokugqibela; ingumzekelo ophilayo wesithembiso somGaqo-siseko sokusesikweni phantsi komthetho. Ukususela ekuqalekeni kwayo okuphantsi ngo-1789 ukuya kwisigxina sayo sangoku njengelona qumrhu linamandla ehlabathini, iNkundla ibumbe ubomi baseMerika ngeendlela ezininzi. Ukucaciswa kwayo ngomGaqo-siseko (*) ukugcina urhulumente, ukwandisa amalungelo abantu, okanye ukuqinisekisa ukuba umlawuli ophezulu umbaxakene nolawulo lwesizwe olusemthethweni. Njengomgcini wemiGaqo-siseko onamandla ehlabathini, iNkuqinisekisa ukuba akukho sebe likarhulumente ligqitha imida yalo yalo kwaye amalungelo omntu ahlala ekhuselwe kwimicimbi ephambili. Ukuqonda imbali yeNkusebenza, kwaye impembelelo ayiyo nje; kuyimfuneko kubemi bonke abafuna ukulawula izakhiwo zeMelika.