Ukuqonda ukuThintelwa koMlawuli weSizwe ekuKhutshelweni

Ukhuseleko lwezolawulo lwesizwe yimfundiso esisiseko ekhusela ukumangalelwa kweenkundla zikarhulumente okanye zikarhulumente ngaphandle kwemvume. Isekelwe kwiSimemezelo seshumi elinesine soMgaqo-siseko we-U.S., le nkqubo ikhusela ulawulo nozinzo lwesizwe. Noko ke, ukusetyenziswa kwayo kuwonke wonke okunika uncedo olubalulekileyo olunjengamanzi, umbane, igesi yendalo, kunye ne-tetransfermetics (iiintes) ezingundoqo kwi-ligingstions. Xa iziquququzelo zise, zisebenza, okanye zilawulwa kakhulu ngurhulumente, umbuzo wokuba ngaba ipectitice ingazisa ityala lokuchaphaza okanye isihlangulo kwiimeko eziqhelekileyo nokuba ngaba zisebenza na kwaye zikho na. Eli nqaku lilungiselela ukuvavanywa kwemeko-ograccutment, ukuxelwa kwemali, ukusetyenziswa kwemiqatha, ukusetyenziswa kwemiqatha, ukusetyenziswa kwemiqatha, kunye nemigaqo eluncedo, kunye nemigaqo-mthetho, kunye nemigaqo ecacileyo.

Imvelaphi Nemilinganiselo Karhulumente

ISinyuso seshumi nenye, esagunyaziswa ngowe-1795, sinikela ukuba “iNkundla ePhakamileyo yezeeJaji yeUnited States ayisayi kuthathwa njengeyokwandisa nayiphi na imfanelo esemthethweni okanye elinganayo, iqaliswe okanye igwetywe nxamnye nenye i-United States yi-Paratical of the Potical State, okanye yiMinicity okanye iZiphelo zeLizwe laMazwe Asemzini.” Ekuhambeni kwexesha, iNkuNkundla ePhakamileyo iye yatolika lenza oku kulungiswa ngokubanzi, ibambe ukuba amaziko anokukhuselwa ngokwesivote yanga kwinkundla yangasese, kungakhathaliseki ukuba yindawo yobumi yephondo yephondo. Lo mqobo uthintelo ukwandisa amaqumrhuluko kunye namagunya asebenza njengemeko esizwe. Ngokunjalo imfundiso ayichaphaza nangoko, njengoko imeko yokuzinziswa kwemeko yokhuseleko lwesizwe.

Uqikelelo olusemva kokhuseleko lolawulo lobukhosi lusekelwe kwimigaqo yesizwe nolawulo lukarhulumente. Ama-United States agcina ilungelo lokulawula izindaba zawo ngaphandle kokungenelela okungafanelekanga kwiinkundla zikarhulumente okanye kwiinkundla zobucala. Ukuvumela iisuti zibekwe nxamnye nemeko ngaphandle kwemvume yazo kungabeka engozini imali kawonke-wonke kwaye kuphazamise imisebenzi karhulumente. Noko ke, olu khuselo lungadala umqobo kubantu abonzakalayo ngenxa yezinto ezisetyenziswa ngurhulumente, njengakwimeko yokuphuma ngamandla aqhubekayo, ukupheliswa kwamanzi angcolileyo, okanye izibonelelo zegesi ezingakhuselekanga. Ukuqonda imida yegobeko yezo zonke iintambo zolawulo lombuso ibalulekile kuye kumntu wonke obandakanye kwizinto eziluncedo zikawonke-wonke.

Uhlahlelo lwesizwe

Asizizo zonke izinto eziluncedo zikawonke-wonke eziphathwa ngokulinganayo phantsi kokhuseleko lolawulo oluphezulu. Umahluko ongundoqo uxhomekeke ekubeni isibonelelo sikwindawo “isandla sesizwe” okanye into ezimeleyo elawulwa ngumthetho wesizwe. Iinkundla zisebenzisa uvavanyo oluninzi lwe-gravity ukufumanisa ukuba ngaba isibonelelo sifanelekile na ukuthintelwa kwento ekhoyo. Izinto ezicingelwa ukuba ziquka: iqondo lokulawula lesizwe kwindawo, injongo yento ekhoyo (i-mouse v. propiritariary), inzala yesizwe, imali kunye nenkululeko yemali, nokuba ngaba umgwebo kwizinto ezikhoyo uya kuhlawulwa yimali ekhoyo. i-ouniced commentation. "59] njengesebe likarhulumente okanye isebe lombane elincedisa umbane elixhamkelo lwesizwe na, ngaphandle kokuba isebenzisa i-swordswords.

Izinto ezikhoyo zemo

Xa isibonelelo silawulwa ngqo yimeko okanye sisetyenziswa yirejista ethile yezopolitiko, ukhuseleko oluphezulu oluqhelekileyo luye lwabekwa elugcinweni lwenkundla yesizwe. Umzekelo, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yaseMntla Carolina ibambelele kwiSigqeba soRhulumente ngenxa yokuba imisebenzi yayo ingurhulumente wendalo. Ngokufanayo, iGunya leSigodlo seNtlalo saseTennessee (TVA) liqumrhu elilawulwa ngurhulumente elinokhuseleko lokhuseleko lwezokhuseleko lwezonyango lwezonyango, nangona ukhuseleko lombuso lombuso lokwahlukana nolawulo lwezolawulo lwezolawulo lwezomthetho. Kulo, umgangatho wamanzi amaninzi wamanzi karhulumente, umbane, umbane, kunye nemimandla yendalo yegesi esetyenziswa njengezixhobo zelizwe ngaphandle kwemvume yenkundla. Nangona inkundla isenokufumana unyango lwezorhwebo lwenkundla yezonyango.

Ubuchule babucala phantsi kolawulo lwesizwe

Iziphakamiso ezizimeleyo, kuquka iinkampani ezinkulu ezizizibonelelo ezifana neDuke Energy, i-Pacific Gas & umbane, okanye iDominion Energy, azikhuselekanga ngokhuseleko lombuso. Zizinto ezahlukeneyo ezingokwasemthethweni ezisebenza kumandla ombuso olawulayo, nangona zilawulwa kakhulu yiPUC. Umthetho ongawuguquleli umbutho wabucala kwingalo yesizwe. Ngoko ke, abantu bangafaka iimpahla zomzimelo ngokuchasene nezixhobo zobugxwayiba, ukwaphulwa kwesivumelwano, okanye ukwaphulwa kwemithetho yokhuseleko yabathengi. Kodwa, umthetho owenziweyo ukhuseleko olufana nomthetho owenzelwe ukukhusela izenzo ezithile zoncedo (umz.) umgangatho obalulekileyo wokwahlula phakathi kolawulo lwe-olawulo (olukhusela ngokwawo) kunye nokuzikhusela ngokwawongabo.

Izahluka-hlukeneyo Kulawulo Oluphezulu Lwelizwe

Ngaphandle kokukhuselwa okubanzi kokhuseleko lwezobungangamsha, iimpelesi ezininzi ezimiselwe kakuhle zivumela abasebenzi abaqhelekileyo ukuba bamangalelwe kwiphondo kwizinto eziluncedo ezikwimeko ezithile. Ukuqonda ezi zimkhethe kubaluleke kakhulu kumagqwetha afuna ukubeka ityala kwizinto ezizimeleyo zikawonke-wonke.

I-Expoint Wair ebizwa ngokuba yiRhulumente

Amazwe angavuma ngokuzithandela ukumangalelwa ngokudluliswa komthetho okhusela ukunqanda ulawulo. Amaphondo amaninzi aye amisela izenzo zokuzithethelela ezivumela iisuti ezilinganiselweyo ezichasene namasebe athile karhulumente, ngokufuthi ezibekwa phantsi koonobangela bomonakalo neemfuno ezingqongqo. Umzekelo, i-Tort Apentitions (Gov. iikhowudi 76 810 et seq.) zivumela ukuba zithethe ngokuchasene nemimandla kawonke-wonke, kuquka urhulumente ozisebenzelayo imimandla ebekwe amanzi, ukwenzela iingozi ezibangelwa yimeko eyingozi yempahla kawonke wonke. Noko ke, ii-ravers zidla ngokumxinene zinokungangeni kukuthintela ukuvuka kwezigqibomvozo okanye ekusebenzeni kwe-zikhundla likarhulumente apho urhulumente asebenza khona kwigunya lakhe likarhulumente. Xa urhulumente emisela umbutho wasekuhlaleni kunye nokuncitshiswa, uququluko lolwimi lukawonke-othe.

Ukuhlaziywa Kwengqungquthela Ngaphantsi KoMthetho - siseko Weshumi Elinane

IBhunga lingasikhusela kwimithetho elawulayo yesizwe xa lisebenza phantsi kwamandla alo okunyanzelisa ukuhlaziywa kweNkqutyana ye-14th (umz., ukunyanzelisa ukhuseleko olulinganayo okanye inkqubo efanelekileyo). Oku kuyimfuneko kwinqanaba elisisibonelelo ukuba isibonelelo esithenjiswayo sithe sabekwa phantsi kwemithetho-siseko somthetho waso saphula ilungelo elisemthethweni. [[5] Kumzekelo, ukuba isibonelelo sikawonke-wonke sinqamla inkonzo kwindlu esezantsi ngaphandle kwenkqubela-yo, isiqinisekiso esingaphantsi kwama-42, i-U.C.193] isenokuziswa kwisenzo esilula ukuba i-ethelekelelwe ukuba i-ethelekelelo-mfono ye-mfono yomthetho, [5] i-FFFE) ephantsi kwegunya elingumthetho elinguMvusele.[5], i-Sandmovrease-ult.[5], i-U.51] ingumthetho othenjiweyo, i-ogrona i-ogrogrise i-ogcut.

Isuti Zokukhululeka Okunokuthenjwa: Imfundiso Epheleleyo Encinane

Phantsi Ex Parte Young, 209 Inkululeko yokwahlukanisa. U-193.08), umchasi unokuzisa isuti ngokuchasene negosa lesizwe kumandla abo asemthethweni ukumisela ukuqatshelwa kokwaphulwa komthetho karhulumente okuqhubekayo. Oku kuchasene nokuvumela ukutshatyalaliswa kwemali emni wogcino-mali kodwa kuvumela ukuba i-mouse ekwindawo engaphambili okanye ephantsi kwe-oyileyo-omatilority ikhuphele umlambo, le nkundla ithetha ukuba ikhoti yenkundla yelizwe i-ododayo ye-odosasethi okanye umphathi wesibonelelo welizwe owenzelwe ukumisa ukusetyenziswa kwemithetho esemthethweni elawulayo okanye amalungelo abantu. Umzekelo, ukuba urhulumente osebenza ngombane uyakwazi ukukhupha izinto ezingcolisa amanzi ngaphandle koMgaqo-melwano, u-mfo wolawulo wegunyaziso lomthetho angayenziswayo.

Ibhanki Nezinye Izinto Ezimxinwa

Ukhuseleko olulawulayo lwesizwe lukwalawulwa kwimicimbi ethile ewiswa yimali yelizwe (11 U.S.C. 76), enokuthi ichaphazele amatyala oncedo abolekwe yityala elibileyo. Ngaphezu koko, iFederal Tort Ipenions Actives (FTCA) i-odoless (FTCA) ezithintelayo kurhulumente wesizwe, hayi kumazwe, kodwa urhulumente owenzelwe ukubhalisa i-ankile unika abaxhasi abaxhamkileyo abaxhamkileyo abafanayo. Kumazwe athile, ukuba isibonelelo sibanda kwi- “propietary” umsebenzi kunokusebenzisa i-"odrobist, ukuthintela, ngokomahluko phakathi kwemisebenzi karhulumente nepropietary ukhuselwe kwimisebenzi emininzi; amanye amazwe ngoku asebenzisa uvavanyo olunye ukuze akhusele umsebenzi owenziwayo kungakhathaliseki ukuba umsebenzi wemeko yePlansic.

Izizathu Ezisebenzisekayo Zokuba Kukho Abaxhasi

IiPlaintiff NeeAttorney

Ngokwezibonelelo zelizwe ezonakaliswa yi-operactus, inyathelo lokuqala kukufumanisa ukuba ngubani onesikhundla okanye osebenza esiluncedo. Ukuba yinto ezimeleyo, ukhuseleko oluzimeleyo ngokuqhelekileyo asingomqobo, kwaye isuti yesizwe yenkathalo, ukuphambuka, okanye inkathazo ingaqhubekeka kwinkundla yephondo. Ukuba isibonelelo sigunyaziwe, i-athoritiff kufuneka iphawule into esebenzayo . "efana ne-mort" esebenzayo, esebenzayo, ekhabayo, okanye i- iParete Yolutsha[[[FLT:] imfundiso efuna uncedo. [ii-athone]. i-athorners kufuneka iqwalalise i-khupho enkundla yezomthetho kunokuba kulawulo, njengoko amanye amazwe eninzi ewenziwayo i-overt ye-octivestyrtives. Ngezomzekelo, i-New York'Stiognomes nxamnye nemithetho yetyala.

Enye indlela elungelelanisiweyo yokuqwalasela kusini na ukuba izenzo ze-ubonelo zibumba ukuthatha impahla ngaphandle kwembuyiselo phantsi koMphetho wesihlanu. Ukuba imimiselo okanye imisebenzi eluncedo iphumele phambili ihluze umnini wendawo ekusetyenzweni kwayo kakuhle kwezoqoqosho, isiqinisekiso sokugweba esichasene norhulumente singafumaneka ngaphandle kokukhanyela ngokucacileyo, njengoko ukuthatha u-Celas kukuzibulala ngokwako. Bona umlawuli we-Evangelical Church v. Iphondo leLos Angeles, u-U.S. 304 (1987). Kuzo meko, ukukhusela kolawulo lwezikhundla akusebenzi ngenxa yokuba umGaqo-siseko ngokwawo unika uncedo.

Abenzi bomgaqo-nkqubo kunye nabaPhathi-nkqubo

Abalawuli bomthetho kunye nabalawuli bezenziwo zikarhulumente kufuneka balungelelanise ngenyameko imfuneko yokusebenza kakuhle kunye nokuziphendulela. Ukuzikhusela okubanzi okugqithisileyo kungashiya abemi ngaphandle kokucela ingozi enzulu, ukucutha ukuthemba uluntu. Ngokuchasene noko, ukuchanabeka okungasikelelweyo kwilitha kusenokuyikhupha imali yorhulumente kwaye kuthintele utyalo lukawonke-wonke kwimibutho enzima. Iinkqubo ezininzi ziye zasabela ngokumisela izithintela ezisikelweyo ezivumela ukunyuswa kweka enkathazweni ethile, enjengo-$50 000 ngelitha, kodwa ngaphandle kwelahleko yeziphumo zolwaphulo-mthetho. Abenzi bomthetho bafanele bacinge ukuqinisekisa ubuchule bokukhahlela ulawulo phakathi kwePUC ukuze bacombulule iimpikiswano. Iinkqubo ezininzi zinganikezela ngokukhawuleza, ngokuxabisayo ngoxa zigcina ukhuseleko lwezolawulo lwentengo.

Abaphathi-mikhosi belizwe abazimeleyo kufuneka baqonde ukuba ukukhusela ulawulo lwenkundla akuwakhuseli kwityala lomntu ngamnye lokuziphatha okubi ngempazamo okanye izenzo ngaphandle komsebenzi. HEfer v. Melo, 502 U.S. 21 (1991), iNkundla ePhakamileyo yaqinisekisa ukuba amagosa orhulumente asebenza phantsi kombala womthetho angafakwa kwimfanelo yobuqu yelahleko phantsi kweCandelo lonyaka ka1998. Ngalo ndlela, umphathi wezentengiso owenze ngabomso waphula amalungelo omGaqo-siseko angajongana netyala lobuqu phezu kwayo nayiphi nayiphi naleyo imogosa yolawulo. I-mthetho esemthethweni elungele ukuqeqeshwa ngokunelisayo kwimfuno yemithetho yomthetho-mGwaljini.

ABagwebi Nabaphengululi Bezomthetho

Ukudlala phakathi kokhuseleko oluphezulu nomthetho wesibonelelo uyaqhubeka uguquka. Izigqibo zakutshanje kwiinkundla zesiphaluka zephondo ziye zacaciswa xa isibonelelo sikawonke-wonke singu “isandla sikarhulumente” seenjongo zeshumi elinesithoba. Umzekelo, Frew] v. Imfundiso [[FLT:] FT]v. , 540]. 431.2004), iNkuvumo yeNkundla iqinisekisa ukuba imithetho echaphazelekayo kumagosa aseburhulumenteni phantsi kwe-[FLT]. ISiphetho [[FLT] isenokunyanzelwa. Kumo lwezibonelelo oluqhelekileyo, imimiselo isetyenziswa ukufuna ukubonelela izinto ezithile kwinkqubela- mbasabume yemeko. Abaphengululi bomthetho baphawula ukuba “indlela esebenzayo yelizwe [FLT] ngamanye amaxesha, ngamathuba okuthiwe-matransburg, ngokokulungiselela amathuba athekiswe kakhulu, ngokokusetyenziswa yingxelo yeNtom-ogggracleant

Uphando lwetyala: Ulawulo oluPhezulu kwimiba engekhoyo

Umzekelo 1: Ukungatshati okukhokelela ekufumaneni amanzi

Flint v. Michigan. Abahlali baseFlint, Michigan, abasemagunyeni abathenjiweyo basemagunyeni akwingxaki yamanzi, bechaza ukwaphulwa koMthetho weNgqomo Yokuhamba Ngamanzi kunye noMphetho we 144]. ISebe leMichigan Lemekobume (isebe lesizwe) lathiywa. Icandelo lesi-Sithandathu leSiphakamiso se-FLT) libambe ukuthi ukhuseleko lwezoqobo luzithintele ezinye iintelekelelo kodwa livumele icandelo le-1901 lizichaza ngokuchasene namagosa ngokungxamkelo oluceliweyo olucetyelweyo nomonakalo wemali phantsi kwemeko eyingozi.

Umzekelo 2: Imililo ebangelwa zizixhobo zokusebenzisa

EKhalifoniya, emva kwemililo yengozi ebangelwa yiPasifiki Gas & Umbane wezixhobo (PG&E), i-PPitfs sued PG&E kwinkundla yesizwe. IPG&E yindawo eluncedo yabucala, ngoko ke ukhuseleko lobugocigoci-goci-gosa yayingeyombango. Noko ke, i-CPUCPU ikwayichasa iKhomishini karhulumente wase-California yoKhuthalo loKhuselo lwezeko lokuzikhusela. Inkundla yeSiforinia yakholelwa ukuba iCPUCPU yayingumcimbiso-Sikolo sokhuselo ngenxa yokuba imimiselo ingumsebenzi osemthethweni. Oku kubalase ubunzima bokufumana ii-maliseluntwini ukwenzela ukungaphumeleli, naxandukumntu ozimeleyo.

Utyekelo Neingcinga Zekamva

Unyuko lwentsebenziswano yamandla ehlaziyekayo kunye nolwandiso lwamandla kamasipala ludala izinto ezintsha ezinokuthathwa njengezixhobo zikarhulumente. Umzekelo, umlawuli woluntu okhethelwe ukuthengela abahlali amandla angamagunya ahlangeneyo anxulumene nempembelelo yokhuseleko lombane. Ngaphezu koko, ikhompyutha enxulumene nokukhuthuzwa kwe-injini ye-octal diffrectionings inkxalabo ekhulayo. Ukuba urhulumente owenzelwe ukhuseleko lwendalo ufumana ubuchule bokwaphula ugcino-data olwenzakalisa abathengi, ukhuseleko lwe-othermonel lungasibombobo obuthile, kodwa abalawuli bezinto ezithile ezifunekayo kwi-atrustrity bangaphikisa ukuba umsebenzi wesibonelelo unxulumene ne-provicerdertiesties. Umthetho ofana nomthetho we-FFOctive.[0]

Enye intsingiselo kukusetyenziswa kokudala kwe Ex Parte Young ukuvavanya imfundiso ye-modeli ebekwe ngokwexabiso okanye iinkqubo ezithiya ukuchasana noClaus wezorhwebo. USonoteletle Tribe yase Florida v. Florida, 517 U.S. 44 (1966), iNkundla ibeke izithuba amandla eBrookiswe kwi-outrity phantsi kwe-Clausle, kodwa ikhulula abaphathi belizwe boncedo olungenayo. Ulwimi olucelyileyo lusasetyenziswayo.

Isiphelo

Ukhuseleko oluzinzileyo lwemeko-ntle yelizwe olufuna ukhuseleko oluphezulu loburhulumente eUnited States. Ukuba ukumangalelwa kuxhomekeke kubume bento ekhoyo njengengalo yesizwe, ubukho be-aviner okanye i-collegation bubodwa, kunye nohlobo lwenkululeko efunwayo. Amatyala namagqwetha kufuneka aqhube umgangatho onzima wemithetho karhulumente, uMphetho wesiGaji-jikelezo wesi-jurispul, kunye noNkqulu lwe-Spreme-juride, nolungameleyo olusuka kwi-oksigratya esinjenge- u-Parete Young[ kunye noMphathiswanosombululo. Iziphetho zokuzi-ziqu zimele ziqhubeke ziphumele ngokupheleleyo kwimiqatha yemithetho ye-mthetho, ngoxa ezomthetho-onqandayo zifumana ukhuseleko oluphezulu kwi-gqwenga-ok-ogratiotizo olulungileyo, kwaye ziqhubekeka kakuhle, ziqinisekisa ukuba zilungele ukusetyenziswa ngokulungileyo, kwaye zilungele ukusetyenziswa ngokusemthethweni, kwaye

Ukuphinda ufunde ngemigaqo ethile engokwasemthethweni, jonga iCornell Information Institute yophando lwe-Gradical short , isikhokelo se-EPA kukhuselo lolawulo lobungangamsha phantsi kwemimiselo yemeko-bume[, kunye nengxelo yenkonzo yophando lokhuseleko lwe-A11/5] lwe-APPPP [FLT].