Ukuhambelana Okukhulayo Phakathi Komthetho Wezizwe Ngezizwe Nokugwetywa Kwamakhaya

Kwinkulungwane edluleyo, impembelelo yomthetho wezizwe ngezizwe kwimimiselo yabemi iye yaguquka isuka kwinkxalabo engundoqo yoonozakuzaku benkundla yasekhaya yaba lilungu elingundoqo lenkqubo yenkundla. Njengoko ukuthengiselana imida enqamlezileyo, ukufuduka, kunye nonxibelelwano lwamanani lukhawulezise, iinkundla zesizwe zijongana nemibuzo esemthethweni engaphaya kwemida yazo. Oku kutshintsha ngendlela abagwebi abachaza ngayo imithetho, indlela abachanaba bayazi ngayo imibango yabo, nendlela abaphengululi abayiqonda ngayo indlela yokwenza izigqibo zenkundla. Ukusuka ekubeni liqumrhu elikude lemithetho egcinelwe ulwalamano norhulumente, ngoku umthetho wezizwe ngezizwe uchaphazela ngokuthe ngqo iimpikiswano zoluntu zemihla ngemihla, ukusuka ekunyanzelweni kwesivumelwano somntwana, ukusuka kwimpahla ethetha ukuba yityala. Eli nqaku lihlola indlela ezisebenza ngayo iinkundla zamakhaya, iindawo ezininzi ezithelelana ezithelelana ezihlala kulo.

Ukuze aqonde ububanzi bale mpembelelo, umntu kufuneka kuqala aqonde iindidi zesiseko somthetho wezizwe ngezizwe kunye neenkqubo zengcamango ezimisela indlela amaphondo afumana ngayo le mithetho. Kungoko kuphela esinokuqwalasela iindlela ezicacileyo apho izivumelwano, umthetho wesithethe, kunye nezigwebo zezizwe ngezizwe zihluza kuzo kwimithetho yesizwe. Isiphumo sisixokelelwano esintsonkothileyo kodwa esiya siphinda siphindaphindeka ngakumbi esizabalazela ukungaguquguquki kokulawula xa sibhekisele kulawulo lwezizwe ngezizwe.

Isiseko Somthetho Wezizwe Ngezizwe Nomsebenzi Waso Wasekhaya

Imithombo Yomthetho Wezizwe Ngezizwe

Umthetho wezizwe ngezizwe usuka kwimithombo emithathu ephambili: izivumelwano (izivumelwano ezibhaliweyo phakathi kwamazwana), umthetho wesithethe wehlabathi (izenzo ezithi zilandela ngokwengqiqo yembopheleleko esemthethweni), kunye nemigaqo-siseko jikelele yomthetho oqatshelwe yizizwe eziphucukileyo. Iingcebiso zidla ngokudibanisa amasiko akhoyo okanye zivelise imithetho emitsha kwimibandela esukela kwimida yaselwandle ukuya kwimpahla yenkcubeko. Umthetho wesiko ukhula ngokuthe ngcembe ngoqheliselo kunye nenkolelo yokuba umkhwa uyafuneka ngokusemthethweni. Jikelele, njengemigaqo elungileyo kunye nokwalela kobutyebi obungekho bulungisa, ugcwalisa imidaba xa usenza izivumelwano okanye isiko singaniki mpendulo ecacileyo.

Le mithombo ayisebenzi ngokuzenzekelayo kwiinkundla zasekhaya. Urhulumente ngamnye umisela indlela yokudibanisa umthetho wehlabathi kwinkqubo yawo yomthetho. Le nkqubo ibunjwa ngamalungiselelo omgaqo-siseko, inyathelo lowiso-mthetho, kunye nokucaciswa kwemithetho. Ukuqonda ezi nkqubo zolwamkelo kubalulekile kuye nabani na ofumana impembelelo yomthetho wezizwe ngezizwe kwimimiselo yasekuhlaleni.

Ukungatshati Nxamnye Nemisebenzi Eqhelekileyo: Iimodeli Ezimbini Zokwamkela Abantu

Amazwe alandela ngokuqhelekileyo enye yendlela ezimbini zokudibanisa umthetho wezizwe ngezizwe. Kumazwe amaninzi angoorhulumente abami njengeFransi, iNetherlands, ne-Argentina/izivumelwano zamazwe ngamazwe ziba yinxalenye yomthetho wasekhaya ngokuzenzekelayo xa kukhutshwa, ngokufuthi ngokulawula komgaqo-siseko. Ijaji ye-monist ingasebenzisa ngqo ilungiselelo lesivumelwano kwityala loluntu ngaphandle kokulinda ukuzalisekisa umthetho. Umzekelo, iNdibano yeYurophu ngamaLungu eMalungelo oluntu isetyenziswe ngqo ziinkundla zamaFrentshi kwiimbambano ezingo zecala nempahla.

Kwinkqubo ezimbini ze-listance ."imeko yamazwe afana no-United Kingdom, Australia, ne-Indiya" izivumelwano zamazwe ngamazwe zifuna ukuphunyezwa kwemithetho-mthetho ukuze ibe nesiphumo sasekhaya. Isivumelwano ngokwaso sisenokungakhuselwa ngqo ngabasebenzi, kodwa ukuzalisekisa umthetho wehlabathi lonke. Umthetho wesiko, nokokuba, usoloko uphathwa ngokwahlukileyo: iinkundla ezininzi zomthetho oqhelekileyo ziyigqala njengenxalenye yomthetho oqhelekileyo ngaphandle kokuba iphikiswa ngumthetho osemthethweni. Inkundla ePhakamileyo, umzekelo, isenokuthi ngokuphindaphindiwe umthetho wezizwe ngezizwe ngezizwe zingumthetho wesizwe ngokweenjongo ezithile, njengamazwi aphantsi kweAlive Tort sgnon.

Olu mahluko ukhoyo kwizinto ezisetyenziswayo kwindlela umthetho wezizwe ngezizwe ophembelela ngayo ukubhaliswa kwesivumelwano sabemi. Kumazwe aqhelekileyo, umchasi unokukhankanya isivumelwano sokuxhasa isivumelwano. Kumazwe adityanisiweyo, isivumelwano esinye sisenokuphembelela kuphela ukutolikwa kwemithetho yasekhaya nge iprinciple yokuguqulela okungaguquguqukiyo [[[FLT:]] [iii-FLT]]] [iiqumrhu lokugciso lokuba iPalamente ayizimiselenga ukuphelisa iimbopheleleko zezizwe ngezizwe. Le nkqubo isenokuyichaphazela kuphela iziphumo, kodwa ngendlela eyahlukileyo yemfundiso.

Imvelaphi Yembali Nolwando Lwale Mihla

Impembelelo yomthetho wezizwe ngezizwe kwizivumelwano zamakhaya amakhaya asiyonto yakutshanje. Iingcinga zamandulo zale mihla njengoHugo Grotius noEmer de Vattel zabhala kakhulu ngomthetho wamazwe achaphazela amalungelo abantu, ingakumbi kurhwebo lwaselwandle kunye nomthetho webhaso. Ngasekupheleni kwenkulungwane ye-19, izivumelwano zezizwe ngezizwe zokufumana amaphepha asemthethweni, impahla yemizi - mveliso, kunye nokuthwalwa kwezinto elwandle kwaqalisa ukuvela. IConvention yaseBerne (1886) neConvention yaseParis yayiyimizekelo yangaphambili yezivumelwano zorhwebo nezorhwebo ezilandelela imvuzo ezazifuna ukuba kukhuthazwe imilinganiselo ethile encinane kwiimpikiswano zabucala.

Ukudubulo komthetho wezizwe ngezizwe emva kweMfazwe Yehlabathi II kwayinyusa le ngxaki. Ukudalwa kweZizwe Ezimanyeneyo, iNkundla yezobulungisa yezizwe ngezizwe, kunye noninzi lwamaqumrhu angoothile kwakhokelela kwizivumelwano ezintsha kumalungelo abantu, ukurhwebelana, ukukhusela imekobume, kunye nomthetho wabucala wezizwe ngezizwe. INgqungquthela yeHague ekwiziqu zaMasipala, eyasekwa ngowe-1893 kodwa yavuselelwa emva konyaka ka-1993, yavelisa iindibano ezinempembelelo ekusebenzeni, ithatha ubungqina, ukuthunjwa kwabantwana, nokukhethwa kwe-paramente. Ezi zixhobo zenzelwe ngokukhethekileyo ukunceda iinkundla zamakhaya ekusingatheni imidangala yemibangezo, ukucukuthengiswa kwentengo yezo zolwaphulo-mthetho nogwebo.

Kutshanje, ukudityaniswa kwemisebenzi yezoqoqosho kuye kwaqhubela phambili ukulungelelana. INdibano yeZizwe Ezimanyeneyo eContracts yeInternational Sale of Goods (CISG) ngoku ilawula ngaphezu kwesithathu esinye kwintsebenziswano yorhwebo lwehlabathi lonke. Izivumelwano zeWorld Trade Organization zimisela imigaqo yokugcinwa kwempahla yasekhaya. Yaye iqumrhu elikhulayo lomthetho worhwebo lwamazwe ngamazwe, oqukiwe kumawaka ezivumelwano zokutyala, lishukumisele iinkundla zesizwe ukuba zihlole izenzo zokulawula ezichaphazela abarhwebi bangaphandle.

Ubuchule Bempembelelo Enzulu

Ukusetyenziswa ngqo kweTrebiso kunye nesiko

Kumagunya e-monist, ukusetyenziswa okungqalileyo kwezivumelwano kuyindlela elula. Inkundla yabemi ingathembela kwilungiselelo lesivumelwano njengomthetho olawulayo apho isivumelwano sizinqumla khona, ngokutsho ukuba, sibhalwe ngendlela edala amalungelo okanye izibophelelo ezinyanzelekileyo ngaphandle komthetho othengiseka. Umzekelo, iGatya 2 leCISG linika imithetho yokunikezela nokwamkelwa kwentengiso yezizwe ngezizwe. Inkundla yaseJamani okanye yaseSwitzerland ijongene nempikiswano phakathi kwamaqela ahlukeneyo kumazwe e-CISG izakusebenzisa loo mithetho ngqo, i-ogcustom ehambayo ithengiselwano ngokomthetho wamakhaya.

Umthetho wehlabathi jikelele unandipha impembelelo engqalileyo kwiinkqubo ezininzi zomthetho. Imfundiso yomthetho wezizwe kumthetho oqhelekileyo wamandulo waseMerika ivumela iinkundla ukuba zigqibe amatyala asekelwe kwimithetho eqhelekileyo elawula i-piraki, ibhaso, kunye namalungelo oonozakuzakuzaku. Imizekelo yangoku iquka ukuqwalaselwa kokhuseleko loburhulumente kunye nesenzo semfundiso yorhulumente. Kulo manyano, iNdlu yeNkosi kumthetho we- R. Bow Street Metropolitan Spendiary Magisticet, expointrated protet [[FLT] [1999]) ikholelwa ukuba ukuvalwa kwemfundiso yomthetho wesigqesholo-od lwezonyango oluqhelekileyo kunokuzikhulula kwiintloko zemeko zolwaphulo-mthetho. Ngoxa oko kubandakanya ukuqikelelo olungomthetho lwamanye amazwe amaqela amaqela angaphandle okanye amaqela amaqela asekuhlaleni angaphandle.

Ukhokelo Oluqondwa Ngabantu Bezizwe Ngezizwe

Kwanaxa isivumelwano singasebenzi ngqo, iinkundla zamakhaya zisoloko zikhangela kumthetho wezizwe ngezizwe njengoncedo oluchazayo. Oku kwenzeka ngezixhobo eziliqela zemfundiso. Imithetho ebhaliweyo e-U.S. iquka imimiselo emininzi yesizwe efuna ukuba amalungelo angundoqo achazwe ngendlela engachasani nomthetho wezizwe ngezizwe, naninina kunokwenzeka. Ngokukwanjalo, iNkundla yezobulungisa yaseYurophu ibambelele kwi-EU kufuneka itolikwe rhoqo ngezivumelwano zezizwe ngezizwe ngezizwe apho i-EU ingumbutho. Kwaye imimiselo emininzi yesizwe iquka imimiselo efuna ukuba amalungelo angundoqo achazwe ngokulula kwizixhobo ezilwela amalungelo abantu.

Lo msebenzi uqhelekileyo ngokukhethekileyo kwimimiselo yamakhaya ebandakanya ukungacaci kakuhle okanye ebhalwe phandle. Umzekelo, inkundla etolika umthetho wokhuselo lwabathengi basekhaya ingaqwalasela iZikhokelo ze-UN zoKhuselo loMngeni ukuze kufunyanwe intsingiselo "yokungalungisi." Inkundla yentsapho egqibayo ngeenjongo ezingcono zomntwana isenokubhekisela kwiNkomfa yoMbutho weZizwe Ezimanyeneyo kuMalungelo oMntwana, nokuba ilizwe alikhange liwuzalisekise ngokupheleleyo. Ezi nkcukacha ziphuhlisa ukuqiqaqa komthetho zeZizwe ngezizwe zize zikhuthaze ukungalandeli imilinganiselo yomhlaba wonke ngaphandle kokufuna imigaqo esemthethweni.

Imigudu Yokuvisisana Yemibutho Yezizwe Ngezizwe

Imibutho yezizwe ngezizwe isebenza ngokukhutheleyo ukuvisisanisa imithetho yamakhaya, inciphisa iimfazwe kunye nentsebenziswano. IKhomishini yeZizwe Ezimanyeneyo e-International Trade Law (UNCTRAL) ivelisa imithetho yemodeli ekudibaniseni, ekunyibilikeni, ekuthengisweni kwe-elektroniki, nakuhlawulelo lwemida enqamlezileyo. Le mithetho yemodeli idla ngokuthathwa ngokubanziswa yimithetho yowiso-mthetho wesizwe, nto leyo ekhokelela ekubeni i-ekhomfa yokwanelwano. Ngokufanayo, iZiko zamazwe Ngamazwe eHlanganisa uMthetho (UNIDROIT) yenza imigaqo yezivumelwano zezorhwebo zezizwe ngezizwe ngezizwe ezithiyo iphinde ichaze nakwiimeko ezingadibani.

Ingqungquthela yeHague engoMthetho wezizwe ngezizwe iyaqhubeka iphuhlisa iindibano ezilungele ukudityaniswa kwemida. INdibano yeNkundla yowama-2005 kunye neNdibano yeMigwebo yowama-2019 ukuqinisekisa ukuba iirejijingi zokhetho kunye nemigwebo ephumele kwimida. Njengoko amazwe amaninzi ezifaka ezi zixhobo, iinkundla zasekhaya zifumana zisebenza kuthungelwano lwezibophelelo ezibangela ukuba kubekho uqhutyeko lwezobulungisa.

Imibutho yengingqi ifeza indima efanayo. I-European Union imanyanise umthetho omkhulu wabucala ngemithetho nangemiyalelo ngezantsi kwemigaqo, ityala lemveliso, ukhuseleko logcino-lwazi, nezinye ezingakumbi. INkundla yeJaji ye-European Union iqinisekisa ukucaciswa okufanayo, kwaye iinkundla zesizwe kufuneka zilandele imithetho yazo. EAfrika, iNkundla yama Afrika yamalungelo abantu kunye nemimandla yezoqoqosho enjenge-Economic Community of West African States (ECON) iphuhlise i-justile jursprament eyakhama kumatyala amakhaya. Ezi nkqubo zephondo zidala ukuhlalisa okuxhathisa okudla okuhambela phambili kwemigudu yehlabathi lonke.

Impembelelo Kwimimandla Ekhethekileyo Yokugwetywa Kwamakhaya

Isivumelwano Nomthetho Wezorhwebo

Umthetho wentengiso wehlabathi wonke ngumzekelo obalaseleyo womthetho wamazwe ngamazwe olawula ngokuthe ngqo izivumelwano zamakhaya. ICISG, enamazwe angama-90 angamalungu, inika ulawulo olufanayo lwezivumelwano phakathi kwamaqela ezorhwebo kumazwe awahlukeneyo. Xa kuphakama imbambano, inkundla yasekhaya mayigqibe enoba iCISG iyasebenza kwaye emva koko isebenzise amalungiselelo ayo ekuyilweni, izibophelelo, ukwaphula, kunye namayeza. Oku kudla ngokufuna ukuba abagwebi bashiye iingcamango eziqhelekileyo zasekhaya . Ngokunjalo, ukuqwalaselwa okanye umthetho webhokisi yeposi (ukukhetha). Isiphumo siqumrhulunqe lomthetho ocatshuliweyo ocatshuliweyo, usenza umthetho oqhelekileyo wokuthengisa.

Ngaphandle kokuthengiswa, imigaqo yezizwe ngezizwe yokunyanzela ukusetyenziswa kwemali, ubunzima, kunye nokholo oluhle iye yaphembelela umthetho wesivumelwano sasekhaya. Nangona iUNIDROIT Principles of International Contry Cortracts, isoloko ikhankanywa ziinkundla ze-arbitral yaye maxa wambi zinkundla zesizwe. Kwimiba entsonkothileyo ebandakanya izivumelwano ezininzi ngaphaya kwemithetho, abagwebi basenokubhekisela kule migaqo ukusombulula amasuntswana okanye ukusombulula amatyala.

Umthetho Wentsapho Nomthetho Wamanye Amazwe

Umthetho wentsapho ngummandla apho umthetho wezizwe ngezizwe uye wenza igalelo elinzulu. INdibano yeHague ekwiMpawu ze-Civil Aments of International Child Abduction, eyamkelwa ngo-1980, ifuna ukuba iinkundla zibuyisele abantwana ngokukhawuleza beshenxiswe ngokuphosakeleyo kwilizwe labo lokuhlala ngokwesiqhelo. Le ndibano ikhutshwe ngamazwe angaphezu kwekhulu, kwaye isicelo sayo sibangela ukuba kubekho intsebenziswano ethe rhoqo. Iinkundla zesizwe zimele zitolike zize zisebenzise amalungiselelo endibanweni, ngokufuthi kwiimbambano ezingokweemvakalelo phakathi kwabazali bamazwe ahlukeneyo.

Ngokufanayo, iiNdibano zeHague zokufumana abantwana abasemthethweni, ukuqinisekisa ukuba abantu abadala bayagcinwa, nokukhusela kuye kwaguqula iinkqubo zasekhaya. Iinkundla ezisingatha la matyala zisoloko zibhekisela kwiindibano, kwanaxa indlu yowiso-mthetho yasekhaya iphumeze imimiselo. Izithethe zezizwe ngezizwe ezibhekisele kwiiNgqungquthela zeZizwe Ezimanyeneyo zamalungelo abantwana, ngoku zichaza izigqibo zenkundla yeentsapho ehlabathini lonke.

Umthetho Onento yokudlala Namalungelo Abantu

Umthetho wamalungelo abantu wehlabathi lonke unyusiwe ngeendlela ezininzi. Amaxhoba okuxhatshazwa kwamalungelo abantu maxa wambi azisa iisuti zabemi kumazwe esithathu, exhomekeke kulawulo lwendalo okanye kwimimiselo efana ne-U.S.Alien Tort Sigment. Kwezi meko, iinkundla kufuneka zigqibe enoba umthetho wezizwe ngezizwe unika unobangela wesenzo nokuba uvumela iisuti nxamnye namaqumrhu azimeleyo okanye amagosa. Iimeko zelizwe elihambayo ezifana Khiobel v. ulawulo lwe-Royal Homelands Petroleum[ (2013]) kunye ne-'sner. Bank . Albun Bank [FLD:3].[FLT] [2018]))

Ngapha koko kubekwa kwetyala okuphezulu, umthetho wamazwe ngamazwe uphembelela izigqibo ezithe zafunyanwa ekhaya kwii-tort ngendlela eziqhelekileyo. INkundla yaseYurophu yamalungelo abantu iye yawisa umthetho wokuba ityala limele linikezele iindlela ezisebenzayo zokunyanga umonakalo wobuqu obangelwa ngabameli bakarhulumente okanye amaqela azimeleyo ngokwemeko ezithile. Iinkundla zeSizwe kwiBhunga lamalungu aseYurophu kufuneka zithathe ityala le mithetho xa kusenziwa isigqibo sentlawulo. Kwizikomfako zasekuhlaleni, iindibano zokunxibelelana nongcoliseko oluneyo kunye netyala lemisebenzi eyingozi ebangelwa yimiqatha enikezelwa zinkundla zesizwe ngokwandayo.

Impahla kunye nempumelelo

Umthetho wempahla, osenokubonakala uyinto nje ekhoyo, ukwadibana nomthetho wezizwe ngezizwe. Izivumelwano zotyalo-mali zamazwe ngamazwe zikhusela abanikazi bemali bangaphandle ekuhlawuleni ngaphandle kwembuyiselo, kwaye amanye amazwe avumela abanikazi beemali ukuba bazise izinto ezifunwayo kwiinkundla zasekhaya ezisekelwe kumalungiselelo esivumelwano. Iinkundla zelizwe kufuneka zichaze umlinganiselo wesivumelwano, inkcazelo yotyalo, kunye nentlawulo efunekayo. I-UNIDROIT Principles kunye neConvention yeCape Town kwizixhobo zenqwelo-moya ziye zasebenzisa imigangatho ethile yentekonxaxwaniso, echaphazela amalungelo empahla kwimpahla ephathwayo.

Umthetho wokuphumelela uhlala ungowesizwe, kodwa i-EU i-Frandment Regation (650/2012) inolawulo oluchanekileyo, umthetho osebenzayo, nokuqwalaselwa kwemigwebo kumazwe angamalungu. IiNkundla zamazwe e-EU ngoku zisebenzisa umthetho ofanayo ukumisela ukulandelelana komthetho, ngokufuthi azisayi kubeka imfazwe yazo yesithethe yemithetho yasekhaya. Iindibano zamazwe ngamazwe ahlukahlukeneyo ziya kwenza kube lula ukunqamleza komda.

Ucelomngeni Nesithintelo Esiqheliselwayo

Inkxalabo Ngolongamo Nemithetho

Mhlawumbi olona celomngeni luzingisileyo lubuxanduva phakathi komthetho wezizwe ngezizwe nolawulo lwesizwe. Abanye abagwebi, iindlu zowiso-mthetho, kunye nabalawuli bajonga izithethe zezizwe ngezizwe njengokuphazamisana nemigaqo-nkqubo yedemokhrasi. Le ngxaki ibalaseliswa kwiingxoxo zokuba iinkundla zamakhaya zifanele zisebenzise izivumelwano zamalungelo abantu zamazwe ngamazwe ezingagunyaziswanga ngurhulumente, okanye enoba kufuneka akulungele ukuthobela iinkundla zezizwe ngezizwe ngezizwe. EUnited States, umzekelo, abanye abagwebi borhulumente bachase ukukhankanya imizekelo yamazwe angaphandle okanye yezizwe ngezizwe ngemigaqo-siseko, besithi ijaji yetyala lemiqathango yemiqumsko-siseko, isithi icandelo lemiqathango yemithetho yezo

Kwanakuxolelwa kwinkqubo ye-monost, abagwebi bangathandabuza ukusebenzisa umthetho wehlabathi ukuba ungqubana nomthetho wasekhaya ocacileyo okanye ummiselo womgaqo-siseko. Umgaqo wokuba imigaqo yamva kwisivumelwano esigqithileyo umiselwe kakuhle eUnited States nakumazwe amaninzi angomthetho wabemi. Xa umthetho wasekhaya ucacile kwaye ungqubana nembopheleleko yezizwe ngezizwe, inkundla kufuneka inyanzelise umthetho wasekhaya . Le nto inyani ilinganisela impembelelo yemithetho yezizwe ngezizwe kwimiqathango apho izindlu zowiso zihlala khona zinegunya.

Iingxaki zonyanzelo kunye nokuqokelelwa

Ukucingela ukuba inkundla yasekhaya isebenzisa umthetho wamazwe ngamazwe ngokufanelekileyo, iqinisekisa ukuba umgwebo wayo unqumla imida ungumqobo omkhulu. Ukungabikho kwenkqubo yokunyanzelisa ihlabathi lonke kuthetha ukuba umgwebo onikezelwa kwelinye ilizwe ungatyeshelwa okanye uphinde ubekwe kwelinye. Kwanaphakathi kweSivumelwano seMigwebo seHague, ukuvunywa kuxhomekeke ngaphandle kwemigaqo kawonke wonke kunye nenkqubo efunekayo. Amazwe anenkqubo ephantsi kokuphuhliswa komthetho asenokungabi namandla okunyanzelisa imigaqo entsonkothile yezizwe ngezizwe, kwaye imbambano yezobupolitika isenokuthob ’ intsebenziswano.

Ngaphezu koko, umthetho wezizwe ngezizwe usoloko unika kuphela imilinganiselo encinci, ushiya indlela ebalulekileyo yokwahluka-hluka kwasekhaya. Inkundla yaseYurophu yamalungelo abantu inika ingxelo "yoxabiso" ekuzalisekiseni amalungelo endibano. ICISG ivumela amaqela ukuba angayifaki phantsi ngokupheleleyo inkqubo yayo. Oku kuguquka, nangona kuyimfuneko ukukhusela imvume ebanzi, kungakhokelela ekusetyenzisweni ngokuguquguqukayo ngaphaya kolawulo.

Umthetho Wehlabathi Olinganiselweyo

Asiyiyo yonke imimandla yokungavumelani kwabemi echukumiseke ngumthetho wehlabathi. Umthetho wempahla yasekhaya, itort yemithetho yengozi yangaphakathi, umthetho wentsapho kwizibini ezingokwabelana ngesondo (ngaphandle kweYurophu kunye neminye imimandla embalwa), kunye neinkalo ezininzi zokulandelelana ezihlala zingenamdla yimigangatho yezizwe ngezizwe. Umthetho wezizwe ngezizwe okhoyo usoloko uqhekeka, uthetha ngezicwangciso ezithile ezithe ngqo zemida kodwa ushiya imida ebanzi. Imigudu yokuchaphazelekayo iqhubeka kancinci, njengomzekelo, iprojekthi yemithetho yasekhaya esemthethweni yasekhaya. Umzekelo, iprojekthi yemithetho yehlabathi yezorhwebo iye yaxutyushwa kaninzi kodwa yenza inkqubela encinane.

Kwanalapho umthetho wezizwe ngezizwe usebenza khona, impembelelo yawo esebenzayo ixhomekeke ekuqeqesheni nasekukulungeleni kweejaji zasekhaya. Abagwebi abaninzi abaqhelene nezixhobo zezizwe ngezizwe kwaye abanazo nemithombo yokuziphanda. Imiqobo yeelwimi, iindleko zokuguqulela, kunye nobuninzi bezivumelwano zisenokudimaza iinkundla ekubandakanyeni nomthetho wezizwe ngezizwe. Iinkqubo zemfundo yezomthetho ziye zaquka umthetho wezizwe ngeendawo ngezizwe, kodwa inkqubo ayilingani kumazwe nakumgangatho wenkundla.

Ulwalathiso Nemikhwa Eza Kuvela Kwixesha Elizayo

Impembelelo yempembelelo yomthetho wamazwe ngamazwe kwiingongoma zokudityaniswa kwabemi kubunzulu bomanyano. Urhwebo lwamanani, ugcino-lwazi, kunye nobuchule bokwenziwa zibangela imibuzo emitsha engokwasemthethweni ekungekho rhulumente omnye ongayiphendula yedwa. Imithetho ye-EU ye-General Data Protection Reggation (GDPR) sele isebenza njengemodeli yokhuseleko logcino-lwazi kumazwe amaninzi, kunye neenkundla zaloo mazwe zitolika imithetho yawo yasekhaya ngokulula amalungiselelo e-GDPR. Imithetho yokwahlula iyaqhubeka nokusebenza kwayo isebenza, kwaye imigaqo ye-procrate ixhaswe ngokuqhubekayo ithathwa ziintyanga kwiinkundla zasekuhlaleni ngenxa yeemeko ezinzima zorhwebo.

Ukutshintsha kwemozulu kumela omnye umda. Kumazwe amaninzi amatyala athe abonisa ukuba inyathelo likarhulumente elinganelanga lichasene nezivumelwano zemekobume okanye iimfanelo zamalungelo abantu. Iinkundla zasekhaya ziqalile ukubhekisa kwi-Paris Agreementation kunye ne-Intergovernmental Programme on Climate Change ngokuqiqa kwazo, naxa ityala libekwe njengetyala lasekhaya okanye ucelomngeni lomthetho wolawulo. Ityala le-Datshi elibalulekileyo [FLD: 0] [Urgenda Foundation v. I-Netherlands[FLT:] (2011)) yabona iNkuNkundla ePhakamileyo yaseNetherlands ixhomekeke kwiNkulwano ye-Netherlands eMadodayo e-Europe elungele ukuthotywa kwamalungelo abantu, isigqibo esiphembele i-Belgium, i-Ush, ne-United States.

Ubuxhakaxhaka bukwatshintsha indlela umthetho wezizwe ngezizwe ofikelela ngayo kwiinkundla zasekhaya. Izixhobo ze-intanethi ezifana ne- United Nations Treaty Coont kunye ne Isiseko sedata esiseko sekhompyutha . yenza izinto zezizwe ngezizwe zibe luncedo ngakumbi kunanini na ngaphambili. Iinkqubo zeJaji, ezifana ne- Genometic Irnetic Network yolute ye-ligistration [[[[FLTLT:5]] kunye nemimandla ye-FUM], zivumela abagwebi ukuba babelane amava noqheliselo olulungileyo. Oku kunqamlezayo kukhuthaza iinkundla ukuba zijonge ngaphaya kwemidathanga lasekhaya, ngokuthe ngceleleka-condo .

Kwangaxeshanye, uxhathiso kunye nokuzikhusela kusenokuqhubeka. Intsebenziswano yePopulist kumazwe amaninzi iye yathandabuza ukufaneleka komthetho wezizwe ngezizwe, kwaye ezinye izindlu zowiso-mthetho ziye zamisela imithetho ethintela ukusetyenziswa kwemithombo yangaphandle okanye yezizwe ngezizwe ngeenkundla zamakhaya. Umlinganiselo phakathi kokukhulula nokuzikhupha ngokwawo uza kuqhubeka uguquka, umilise okwemisinga yezobupolitika njengangoko kuthethwa ngomthetho osemthethweni. Noko ke, uxinzelelo lwesakhiwo sehlabathi jikelele `imali, ukufuduka komda welizwe', ukuhambelana kwemidathanga, ukudibana kwamanani, ukudibana nonxulumano olupheleleyo nomthetho wezizwe ngezizwe.

Kubongi nabaphengululi abasemthethweni, ukuqonda le misebenzi ibalulekileyo. Abalawuli abanokwazi ukuchaza izixhobo ezifanelekileyo zezizwe ngezizwe kwaye baphikisane ngokusetyenziswa kwazo baza kunceda abathengi babo bhetele kwihlabathi elidibeneyo. Abagwebi abaqhelene nomthetho wezizwe ngezizwe bangenza izigqibo ezingqinelanayo nezisesikweni kwiimeko ezinqamlezileyo. Yaye abafundi abafunda ukunxibelelana kwemiyalelo yezizwe ngezizwe neyasekuhlaleni bayazilungiselela umsebenzi apho imida imicimbi, kodwa nokokuba ngaphantsi kwento eyenzekayo ngaphambili.

Isiphelo

Umthetho wehlabathi lonke unempembelelo enamandla neyaya ikhula kwizenzo zokumanyana kwabemi kwiinkundla zamakhaya. Ngenkqubo engqalileyo yezivumelwano, ukhokelo, kunye nemigudu yokuvisisana nemibutho efana ne-UNCITRAL, i-UNIDROIT, kunye neNgqungquthela yeHague, imigaqo-nkqubo yezizwe ngezizwe iphinde yatshintsha umthetho wesivumelwano, umthetho weentsapho, itort, kunye nomthetho wempahla. Ngexesha iingngeni elithelekelelwayo, intsingiselo ebanzi yokumanyana okungakumbi. Ikamva liya kujongwa ngokunzulu ngomthetho wendalo, ngokweerejistation, kwaye iimbambano zamalungelo abantu zinyanzeleka ukuba zijonge iinkundla ezingaphaya kwemidangalathi yesizwe. Kuba nabani nabani na obandakanye nenxaxheba kwimpembelelo yasekuhlaleni, ukuqinisekisa ukusetyenziswa kwale nkqubo yemfundo, nokuzinziwa komthetho womthetho wehlabathi lonke.