Umsebenzi WobuGaqo-siseko: Ukutolika Intsingiselo Esisigxina YomGaqo-siseko

UbuOrigali yindlela yokutolika komgaqo-siseko ophethe umbhalo womGaqo-siseko weUnited States kufuneka uqondwe ngokwentsingiselo eyayinayo ngexesha eyagunyaziswa ngalo . Phofu ke “injongo yokuqala” yeeFrames okanye“ intsingiselo kawonke-wonke" ephethwe ngabalawuli. Le ntanda-bulumko ichasene ngqo nolu cwangciso lwe-“mthetho-siseko ophilayo”, oluvumela abagwebi ukuba bahlaziye iintsingiselo zomgaqo-siseko ukuze babonise amaxabiso kunye neemeko zalexeshana.

Imvelaphi yoqalo lwangoku isukela kwi1980, xa amanani afana no-Attorney General Edwin Meese III noJaji Antonin Scalia ayithethelela njengekuthintela ukuthatha inxaxheba kwekomiti yokugweba. UScalia, ngokukodwa, waphikisa ukuba abagwebi kufuneka babe “ngabakhonzi abathembekileyo bengqiqo yokuqala” kunokuba“ abadali bomthetho omtsha.” UbuFrenti bafumana ulwandiso oluthe chatha kumthetho wecancemia ngabaphengululi abanjengoRobert Bork, Randy Barnett, kunye noMichael McConnell. Namhlanje, buyilebhusi enkulu kubagwebi abaninzi, kuquka abaliqela kwiNkundla Ephakamileyo.

Abaxhasi bathi ubuQala bunika ukuzinza, ukuxelwa kwangaphambili, nokufumana igunya lobudemokhrasi: ukuba intsingiselo yomGaqo-siseko itshintsha ngokokuthanda kwenkoliso yabagwebi, uxwebhu luphulukana negunya lalo elisisibophelelo. Noko ke, abagxeki bathi ukutyeshela ukuguquka kwebutho labantu, kusenokukhokelela kwiziphumo ezingekho sikweni, kwaye ngokufuthi kusetyenziswa ngokukhethayo ukufikelela iziphumo ezinqwenelekayo. Phezu kwayo nje le ngxoxo, ubuGawula buhlala bungumandla amakhulu kwinkululeko yonqulo eMelika, ngokukodwa kwiimeko ezibandakanya inkululeko yonqulo.

Intsingiselo kawonke-wonke yantlandlolo

Umahluko ongundoqo kwisiseko sokuqala yingxoxo phakathi “kwenjongo yokuqala” (oko abantu abaneziqu zabo babekucinga ngasese okubhaliweyo) kunye“ nentsingiselo kawonke-wonke yantlandlolo” (oko umntu onengqondo ngexesha lokudityaniswa kwakuya kuqonda ukuba oku kuthethwa yintsingiselo). UJaji Scalia wayengummeli ophambili wenjongo yokuqala, ephikisa ukuba“injongo yokulawula” yeqela looTata abaFundiweyo yayinobugcijijiji-bucala kwaye ingekho melo. Endaweni yoko, intsingiselo yegama likawonke-*intsingiselo kawonke-wonke, ukusetyenziswa kolwazi oluqhelekileyo, kunye nomongomongo wembali----ahkulawula ukucaciswa kwenkululeko yonqulo. Le mibandela yokwahluka ngokwenkululeko yonqulo ngenxa yokuba abagwebi bokuqala banokufikelela kwizigqibo ezahlukeneyo, kwana xa besithi besithi kufikelele kwindlela efanayo nenkqubo yolwazi-Descrac.

Inkululeko Yonqulo Emgangeni: Umbhalo nembali

IsiHlayiso Sokuqala SeBhili Yamalungelo Sinikela imigaqo emibini ebalulekileyo ngokuphathelele unqulo:

  • ISimiselo sika-Claus: “ISikhululo asiyi kwenza mthetho ngokumiselwa konqulo.” Esi sivakalisi siyalwalela urhulumente ekugunyaziseni ngokusemthethweni okanye ekuxhaseni unqulo oluthile.
  • IThe Free Execroifice Claus: “okanye ukunqanda ukuqheliselwa kwayo ngesisa.” Le ngxelo ikhusela ilungelo labantu kunye namaqela ukuqhelisela unqulo lwabo ngaphandle kokuphazanyiswa ngurhulumente.

Ezi ngxelo zimbini zisebenza kunye ukwenza oko uThomas Jefferson wakubiza ngokuba “ludonga lokwahlula phakathi kwecawa norhulumente." Noko ke, intsingiselo ecacileyo yalo lwahlulo-(nendlela yokulilinganisa nokuzilolonga ngokukhululekileyo/ukukhuphisana okushushu kangangeenkulungwane ezimbini.

Imeko engokwembali ibaluleke kakhulu kubafundi bembali. Ngasekupheleni kwenkulungwane ye-18, amazwe aliqela aye aseka iicawa (ngokomzekelo, uMphengululo wokuqala wawugcina uBume bobuCongregaristy de kowe-1833). Amalungu, edwelisa kwiinkcuba - buchopho zobuNqondiso njengoJohn Locke kunye namava awo e-Gaventi, azama ukunqanda icawa yesizwe ngelixa eshiya amazwe ekhululekileyo ukusingatha imicimbi yonqulo. Umva weSinyuso Solawulo sokuqala sasetyenziswa kuphela kurhulumente wezwe, hayi kumazwe oonolwazi abaphambili abasoloko bebalaselisa imfuno yembali. Kuphela emva kokumiswa kweBhovisi ye-1455t Clasmessacestion (ult Claus Claus) ngo1868 kwaqalisa iNkuhlela ePhakal ’ eMkhosi-omgadiyo “ukulwa kweNkulwamgadiyo, inkqubo ekwayiyokuqala nxamnye noMazwe , inkqubo egqityiweyo i-1920.

Imbono Yonqulo Lobuqaqaba Ngenkululeko Yonqulo: Imigaqo Neenkqubo

Abaxhasi boqobo bafunda ngokulula i-Accoumenting Claus: iyalela ukudalwa kwecawa yesizwe okanye ukukhethwa kwehlelo elinye kunomnye, kodwa akufuni ukuba kubekho ubuhlanga obungqongqo obudida unqulo kubomi babantu bonke. Njengokuba iJaji Scalia yabhala kwi- Lee v. Weismanman[ [1992], “imbali nesithethe sohlanga lwethu kuxhomekeke kwimithendeleko kawonke wonke enikela imithandazo. Ngokunjalo, i-Ostries Scalia ityekele ukutolika i-Free Exective Clasme njengekhuselwa kwimithetho ejolise ingce yonqulo, kodwa hayi ukunikela ukhuthulo oluzenzekelayo olusuka kwimiqobo, oluqhelekileyo, olusebenzayo.

Lo “mthetho wakwalathisela” wachazwa ngokuphandle nguJaji Scalia Employment Division v. Smith [1990], ityala elihlala lililitye lesiseko lokucinga kwendalo ekuziqheliseni ngokukhululekileyo. INkundla yathi umthetho ongowobundindileleyo ebusweni bayo kwaye owendalo awungqubani nowokusebenza jikelele awuwuchasani umzinzo wenkolo we-Free Escolicleation Claus ngenxa nje yokuba inzima nje kuphela, yaye xa loo mthwalo unzima ubalulekile. Phantsi kolu fundo, abantu bangafuneka bathobele umthetho ngaphandle kokuba umthetho ucalulaze ngokungqalileyo ngokuchasene nonqulo okanye ushukupheliselwe yi-am. Abagxeki bephikisa ukuba ukutolika oku luncedo akupheli okuzinzi Free Claus, kodwa basabela kwimbali embali ethetha ngolwazi olubanzi lonqulo.

Amatyala Ayintloko Abonisa Ukuqiqa Kwantlandlolo

Ngaphaya Smith, iimeko ezininzi zephawu lophawu zibonisa iindlela zoqobo zobunzululwazi kwinkululeko yonqulo:

  • [FLT]Everson v. Ibhodi yemfundo (1947): iNkundla yasebenzisa imbono engqongqo yokwahlula u-Exchange Claus (ivumela ukuhlawulelwa kwemali yezothobo lokurhweba kwizikolo zonqulo phantsi “kwemfundiso yomntwana), uJaji Hugo Black uluvo oluninzi lwatsalele kakhulu kwileta kaJefferson nembali yezakhiwo zonqulo. Kamva abaquluneli baye bagxeka u-Everson ngokufunda imbali ephosakeleyo, bephikisa ukuba iFrames azimiselanga kukwamkelwangangeneli uncedo lwezonqulo.
  • ILemon v. Kurtzman (1971]: Uvavanyo lweLemon(-ifuna injongo ephambili yehlabathi, isiphumo esingaqhubekiyo okanye ithintele unqulo, kwaye akukho nto ijijekileyo egqithisileyo, kwaye akukho nto ijijekileyo eninzi. I-'astrist'' ihlaselwe njengesiseko somGaqo-siseko. IJaji Sctalia idiwe ngokudume kwi [[FLT: 4.] v. Wean, ibiza uvavanyo “inte yeLemon' edityaniswe njengengxowa yemasti."
  • Igophe lase Greece v. IGalloway (2014: INkundla yaxhasa umkhwa wokuvula iintlanganiso zebhodi yedolophu ngomthandazo, igxininisa imbali ende yesizwe yomthandazo wowiso-mthetho. Uluvo luka-Anthony Kennedy, oludityaniswe nguScalia noThomas, luxhomekeke kakhulu kwingqungquthela nakuqheliso-mthetho, inkqubo yoqobo yenkqesho.
  • [FLT][FOLT] u-Orinity Church Lutheran v. Comer (2017): INkundla yathi inkqubo karhulumente engafuniyo ukufikelela kwisikolo sonqulo kwinkuselo yemidlalo evumela ukuphazamisana ne-Free Expression Claus kuba yacalula ngokuchasene nomntu ofanelekileyo ngenxa yobume bonqulo. IJaji enkulu uRoberts yagxininisa ukuba “Indlela yokuzikhusela kwimikhosi karhulumente yokulwa nocaphulo lomkhosi,” umgaqo oneemvelaphi enzulu yembali.
  • I-Master Catehop v. Colorado Civil Rights Commission (208): uluvo lukaMphathi Kennedy lwaphepha isigqibo esibanzi sokungqubana phakathi kwenkululeko yonqulo kunye nomthetho wokungavumelani konqulo, endaweni yoko kubhekiswa kwimbonakalo yeKhomishoni yotshaba kwiinkolelo zonqulo lombhaki. Umthetho wezoqulo onjengoThoma noGorrofoth wabhala uKonsonnes othe wafunda ngembali ekhawulela ekuqondeni kwenkululeko yokuthetha, ukuzilolonga, nokusebenza kwentetho enyanzelwayo.

Inkxwaleko Phakathi Kwabantu Abakholelwa Kunqulo Lwamandulo: Umbhalo, Imbali Nesithethe

Asizizo zonke izazi zoqobo ezivumelanayo ngendlela yokusebenzisa intsingiselo yokuqala kwimibuzo yonqulo. Ezinye, njengoMgwebi Clarence Thomas, ziphikisana ngokhuseleko olunamandla lokuzilolonga, ukubuza [[FLT: 0]] u-Smith kwaye zicebisa ukuba ukuqonda kwasekuqaleni koMphetho weshumi elinesine weSigqibo kufake ilungelo elibanzi lokukhulula unqulo kunokuba uvavanyo lwangoku lunikezele. Ezinye, njengoMphathi Samuel Alto, uye wabonakalisa ukuvuleka ukuphinda umva [FLT] kumatyala afana [[FLT:]] Filton. Filton. iNtton yemistrives , eshwankane yeNtlkTy, ekhuthaza ukusetyenziswa kobunzululwazi yembali yakudala, i-irvom, i-Jirkins, esetyenziswa kuMthethomo wobu , ngokukhuthaza ukukhuthaza okunganye ukusukela kwemeko olungoluvo lwam, ngokubhekiseleyodwa kwembali yakudala,

Ucelomngeni Lobuqamsha Kwinkululeko Yonqulo

UbuFako bujongene neenkqubo ezininzi ezaziwayo zokugxekwa kwabentlandlolo xa zisetyenziswa kwinkululeko yonqulo. Okokuqala, abahlalutyi baphikisa ngelithi ubukho bantlandlolo bungangqongqo kakhulu: busenokusilela ukukhusela iinkolo ezincinane ezinokuthi amaFrames angazange azilindele, ezifana nobuSilamsi, ubuHindu, okanye iinkolelo ezingezozabukho bunqulo. Intsingiselo yantlandlolo ye- “unqulo” kumawaka angamashumi asixhenxe anamashumi mathathu anesixhenxe enyani ngokuqinisekileyo ibhekisa kwiinkolo zobukhostia, eziphakamisa imibuzo yokuba ubukho bantlandlolo banokuwalinda ngokufanelekileyo na amalungelo abantu abangekho nqulo okanye angoonqulo.

Okwesibini, ubuBhodi budla ngokukhokelela kwiziphumo ezingqubanayo nentsingiselo yanamhlanje. Umzekelo, ukuba ukumiswa kuka-Claus kwasekuqaleni kwavalwa nje icawa yesizwe, ngoko umthandazo okhutshwayo wesikolo kwizikolo zikawonke-wonke unokuba ngumGaqo-siseko phantsi kofundo olubhaliweyo oludala (ukuma okugatyelwa yinkoliso yabantu baseMerika namhlanje. I-Earcatory iphendula ngokuthi ukunamathela kwintsingiselo yokuqala kuyafuneka naxa ingathandwa, ngenxa yokuba umGaqo-siseko uyisivumelwano esinyanzelisayo, hayi isangqa semivo.

Okwesithathu, ingxelo yembali isoloko idida. OoFata abaFumaniswayo banezimvo ezahlukeneyo ngonqulo norhulumente. UJames Madison, ngokomzekelo, wachasa naluphi na uhlobo lwemali karhulumente yonqulo, ngoxa abanye abaxhasi bexhasa. Ukukhethwa kwembali kungenza ukuba ingcamango yobuBhongi bendalo ingachasana nento. Njengoko iJackson H. Jackson walumkisa, “ukucaphula nje nje iingongoma zembali akuqinisekisi ukuba intsingiselo echanileyo yoMgaqo-siseko ifunyanisiwe.”

Okwesine, ukusetyenziswa kobuntsundu kwilizwe langoku lolawulo kubangela ubunzima obusebenzisekayo. Imithetho emininzi yobundilele ethwalisa unqulo namhlanje, imigaqo yokusebenza, imigaqo yezokongamela, impilo nemigaqo yokhuseleko .

Ukulungelelana Phakathi KobuGqaba NobuGqaba Bale Mihla

Phezu kwazo nje ezi ngxaki, ubuBhongi bendalo busasoloko buhlonelwa ngokubanzi. Iinkundla ezisebenzisa indlela yokumiselwa kwezinto zakudala zisoloko zibudibanisa nezinye izixhobo ezicacisayo, ezifana nomzekelo, ukubhalwa kwemibhalo, kunye nokunyamezela ukuhlaliswa komthetho wonqulo. IReligious Freedom Reformation Act (RFRA) ka-1993, eyabuyisela umgangatho wokuvavanywa ngokungqongqo wonqulo lwemithetho karhulumente, yaxhaswa ngabayili-mthetho abakhululekileyo nabatyebileyo, kwaye ibonisa indlela inkqubo yedemokhrasi enokuthi ixhase ngayo imiqathango yomgaqo-siseko.

Ubuntsundu abukuthinteli ukukhuselwa kweenkonzo ezincinane. UMthetho Wokuqala Wokwenziwa, ngokwawo, uthintela imithetho “ebonisa ukusetyenziswa kwenkululeko” yonqulo .Nto leyo enokuthi ifundwe ngokubanzi okanye esekelwe kubungqina obungokwembali. Abagwebi abagxininisa “intsingiselo yokuqala” ingqina ukuba ibandakanya okungaphezulu kunokukholelwa, kuquka ukuziphatha okunokungqubana nomthetho wehlabathi. Ingxoxo yangoku isoloko isekelwe ekubeni ngaba iiFramers zifuna ukukhulula abantu kusini na, okanye zifuna nje ukuvumela ukurhwaqeshelwano lonqulo njengomthetho wemithetho.

Inkululeko Yonqulo Nendlela Ehamba Phambili

Njengoko ibutho labantu baseMerika lisiba neenguqu ezithe chatha, ukukhusela inkululeko yonqulo ngeli xesha kuhlala kusemgangathweni. Unqulo loqobo lunika indlela enye yokuzimela ezi mpikiswano kumbhalo ozinzileyo, kodwa ayiyondlela yodwa. Abafundisi-bafundisi, abaphengululi abangokwasemthethweni, kunye nabafundi kufuneka baqonde amandla abo kunye nezithintelo zabo. Imfundo enzulu kumthetho-siseko ifuna ukungqubana nembali, umbhalo, kunye nokusetyenziswa okutshintshayo koMgalelo wokuqala kuhlanga oluguqukileyo.

Ukuze ufunde ngokubhekele phaya, khawuqwalasele ezi zinto zilandelayo:

Isiphelo

UbuGaqo-siseko bunika indlela enamandla, enemigaqo yokuchaza iingxelo zonqulo zomGaqo-siseko. Ngokuma i-ankile ekuqondeni kwasekuqaleni okubhaliweyo, abaqulunqi bazimisele ukugcina ukufaneleka komGaqo-siseko ngokwedemokhrasi kwaye bathintele abagwebi ekumiseleni amaxabiso abo. Kummandla wenkululeko yonqulo, le ndlela iveze zombini ukhuseleko olunamandla lokuzilolonga ngokukhululekileyo kunye nembono encinci ngokunxulumene nokwakhiwa kuka-Claus. Ikwabangela iingxoxo ezinamandla zangaphakathi phakathi kwabaqulumbini ngokwabo, kunye nokugxekwa ngokungqongqo kwabo bakhetha abo bavumelana nomgaqo othe bhetyekileyo, osukrweyo.

Ukuqonda ezi mpikiswano kubalulekile kuye nabani na ofunda indima yonqulo kubomi babantu baseMerika. Uxwebhu olukuMquluzo Wokuqala lusaqhubeka ngolu hlobo lokuba lujongene neengxaki ezintsha kwisizukulwana ngasinye, kodwa ukukholelwa kwindalo kusikhumbuza ukuba intsingiselo yayo ayiyonto engenakuthelekiswa nanto. Kubafundi, ootitshala nabemi ngokufanayo, ukuxabana nemigaqo yokumiselwa kwesizwe nokuzabalazela ukulungelelanisa inkululeko yonqulo namanye amalungelo asisiseko.