Ukhuseleko olulawulayo lwesizwe yimfundiso esisiseko esekelwe kumthetho ewiswa amatyala ekumangalelweni kwiinkundla zikarhulumente okanye kwinkundla zesizwe ngaphandle kwemvume yazo. Oku kusekelwe ngokunzulu kuMgaqo-siseko weshumi elinesi-11 owe-U.S., lo mgaqo ubonisa injongo yabasebenzi bokhuselo yokulondoloza isidima sikarhulumente nokuzinza ngokulinganisela ukufikelela kwetyala labucala nxamnye noorhulumente. Kwimeko yamatyala karhulumente abandakanya imigaqo-siseko yerhafu, ukhuseleko oluphezulu ludala umqobo oluntsonkothile abahlawuleli berhafuthi bemali kunye namashishini abamele bahambe kakuhle. Ukuqonda imilinganiselo yawo, iimfuno, iimfuno, kunye nomthetho karhulumente ohlukeneyo, kuyimfuneko kuye kumthetho worhulumente ocel ’ umngeni-mngeni-mthetho werhafu okanye ofuna ii-trandress okanye iziyalelo.

Isiseko sembali nesomGaqo-siseko

Ingcamango yokuzikhusela ekuzimelanga ekuzinziseni imigaqo-mthetho yamaNgesi, apho isiBhulu sasingenakumangalelwa ngaphandle kwemvume yaso. Emva kweNguquko yaseMerika, imfundiso yafakwa kumthetho oqhelekileyo wesizwe yaye kamva yaququzelelwa kwinkqubo yorhulumente ngoMphengululo weshumi elinesithoba, yagunyaziswa ngo1795. Umbhalo woMphengululo-Mdali woMthetho weSizwe usithi: "Ulawulo lwezomthetho lwaseUnited States aluyi kuthathwa njengolufanele lunyuselwe nakweliphi na isuntswana lomthetho okanye ukulingana, iqaliswe okanye imangalelwe omnye we-United States yiPatisses of the tlanti, okanye yiMithelike yayo yelinye ilizwe." Ngoxa ulwimi lwalo luthiye luthiye kumazwe amazwe okanye amazwe asemzini kuphela, iNkumgangatho weNkurhoqonga usoloko uyitolikelwe ngokubanzile ngokwemi bakarhulumente.

Amatyala angundoqo anjenge . Louisiana (1890) kunye USITINOLE FURAND of Florida v. Florida [1996]]) oqinisekisiweyo ukuba uLawulo lwePhinda-mthetho lweshumi elinesixhenxe lunika umthetho wokungasikeli kwisuti yabucala enkundleni karhulumente, nokuba ngabami belizwe. Olu khuselo lwandisa ulawulo lwamaqumrhu nezixhobo ezisebenza njengezixhobo zikarhulumente. Kodwa ke, imfundiso ayiphelelanga; iBrollsss iyakwazi ukukhusela ulawulo olupheleleyo xa isebenza phantsi kolawulo olukhethekileyo lwemithetho esemthethweni, kwaye amazwe anokuvuma ukuva ukukhotyiswa kwerhafutheswa. Kwimeko oluphakathi kwerhafuyo kunye nolungeleneyo lwe-emperensi yokhuseleko oluqhelekileyo.

Ukuhlaziywa Kwemiqathango Yeshumi Nesibhozo Njengesithintelo Kumatyala Erhafu

Xa umhlawula irhafu ekholelwa ukuba umthetho werhafu karhulumente uchasene nokhuseleko lwezomgaqo-siseko wesizwe, njenge-Choomer Claus, i-Active Procession Claus, okanye i-Uthelect Clause(umgangatho wokukhusela urhulumente) uthintela ukumangalelwa okungqalileyo kwetyala kwinkundla yephondo. Ngenxa yokuba amatyala angamajoni anokukhuselwa nakuko ukwaphula umthetho karhulumente, amatyala kufuneka aphawule ukuchasa okuvumela ukuba liqhubeke. Ngaphandle kokuchasana, okuphela kwendlela yokuhlangula kusenokuba senkundla yesizwe, apho iimfundiso zokuzikhusela kwinguwongameli zisenokusebenza khona kodwa zisoloko zisetyenziswa ngokwemimiselo yombuso.

Ngaphezu koko, uMthetho weTsix Indiqution (TIA), 28 U.S. 76 1341, uqinisa lo mqobo ngokubeka umqobo kwiinkundla zesithili zikarhulumente ekuphazamisaneni neminikelo yerhafu karhulumente ukuba "ikhampasi, isantya, kunye nonyango olusebenzayo" lukhona enkundleni karhulumente. I-TIA isebenza ngokudityaniswa nokulondolozwa kolawulo oluphezulu ukuhambisa iingxwabangxwaba zerhafu kwiinkqubo zenkundla zikarhulumente. Ngenxa yoko, inkundla yorhulumente ifuna imingeni ecacileyo yemithetho yerhafu okanye imfuno ecacileyo yokukhusela igonyaniswa kwemithetho yerhafu okanye ukusetyenziswa kwemithetho esebenzayo.

Izahlulelo Ezikhethekileyo Kulawulo Oluphezulu Lwelizwe

I-waver Nemvume

Amazwe angawakhulula ngokuzithandela amagorha awo okuzikhusela ngokwawo, mhlawumbi ngomthetho okanye ngehambo. Amaphondo amaninzi aye amisela imithetho evumela abahlawuleli berhafu ukuba bamangalelwe ukuhlawula ii-refu okanye bavavanye ii-asethi zerhafu kwinkundla yephondo. Aba bahlawuli abanjalo badla ngokulinganiselwa kwiizizathu ezithile zesenzo kwaye basenokufuna ukudinwa kwamayeza okulawula. Umzekelo, umthetho werhafu karhulumente unakho ukuvumela umhlawula irhafu ukuba azise isigwebo sowiso okanye ityala lokuzithethelela ngokuchasene nomphathi-ofisi werhafu. Ukuba urhulumente uyavuma ngokucacileyo ukuba ugunyaziwe, uMnyuso-11 u-Demitempli woMthelisi-

Ngoko, umxhaphazi makabe cacileyo; iinkundla azizukuvumelana nemithetho jikelele. Urhulumente ovela kwinkundla yorhulumente ukukhusela ityala usenokulikhusela, kodwa kuphela ukuba wenza oko ngokuzithandela nangobugqi. Abahlaziyi kufuneka ngoko ke bahlolisise ngenyameko imimiselo yorhulumente kunye nemithetho yesithethe phambi kokuba bacinge ukuba ukukhusela ukuphakanyiswa kuphakanyisiwe.

Ukuzikhukhumalisa Ngeengxubakaxaka

Phantsi kwamandla ayo okunyanzelisa iCandelo 5 loMphetho-weshumi elinesine weSiphendu se-Chonarer ingawugqitha umgaqo-siseko owenzelwe ukhuseleko loburhulumente kunye namagunya aphantsi kwempahla ehlawulweyo e-alukileyo ngenxa yomonakalo okanye isiqabuliso sokophula umthetho. Kumatyala erhafu, eyona mithetho enxulumene nomthetho imiselwe ukunyanzelisa amalungelo omgaqo-siseko, njengemimiselo yamalungelo athintela irhafu yerhafu. Fazitzitrick b.[197], iNkundla ePhakamileyo ikholelwa ukuba iBhunga lokhuseleko xa isenza phantsi kweCandelo 5, lomthetho umthetho uyakwazi ukukhusela i-Gawula-mthetho.

Kodwa ukunyuswa akuzenzekeli. INkundla ePhakamileyo ibeke ingcebiso elinganiselweyo kubuchule beBhunga elilawulayo phantsi kweChommerce Claus (bona [[FLT: 0]] USeminole Tribe]) kwaye ifuna iingxelo ezicacileyo zenjongo. Abahlawuleli bacelw' imithetho yerhafu ecelwe phantsi komthetho karhulumente kufuneka bachaze umthetho ovumela ngokucacileyo ukuba isheke ngokuchasene namagunya ayo, kwaye ukuba iBhunga limiselwe ngokusemthethweni phakathi kwamandla okunyanzelisa. Ngaphandle komthetho onjalo, iA111 Dempletetion commentation isibambiso.

Amagosa Aphambili Elizwe: Imfundiso Encinane Yokuphela

Enye yezona nkululeko zibalulekileyo kukhuseleko lolawulo oluphezulu yimfundiso ye-Ex ex ye-FLT Young, evumela iisuti ngokuchasene namagosa karhulumente kumandla awo asemthethweni ukwenzela ukuba alindele ukukhutshwa okanye akhutshwe ekulungiseni impatho eqhubekayo yomthetho wezwe. Phantsi kwale mfundiso, umphathi-mikhosi onyanzelisa umthetho ongagunyaziswanga ukhutshelwa umthetho werhafu ukhutshwe ngenxa yokuba ukuziphatha komphathi-mikhosi akuthathwa njengesenzo somphathi-gosa. Abarhafuthisi basoloko bexhomekeke kumthetho oqhubekayo. Ngaphantsi kwale mfundiso, phantsi kwale mfundiso, umphathi wezomthetho onyanzelisayo irhafu okanye ozama ukuvavanyanisa inkqubo yerhafu okanye ukuzama ukunyanzela ukulwa komthetho womthetho othengwa ukuba ukungabikho komthetho okanye ulawulo.

Noko ke, i-TIA isenokungaluvali ulawulo lwezwe xa kukho unyango olwaneleyo enkundleni yephondo. Inkundla ePhakamileyo ibambelele kwi- ex e Young ayiwugqithi imiqathango ye-TIA. [ I-California v. ICawa ye-Grace Brethrens [1982], iNkubeko liwise umthetho wokuba i-TIA imivalo yesizwe eqokelelwayo ekhuselekileyo eqokelelweni ngaphandle kokuba unyango lwetyala lungadibaniselwanga "kuchazi, ukukhawuleza, nokuphumelela."

Imizekelo Yamatyala Ebonisa Ukungadibani Kwabo Balawulayo Kwirhafu

McKesson Corp v. Ukwahlulwa kotywala notywala (1990)

Kule meko iphawulekayo, uMcKesson Corporation wacel ’ umngeni inkqubo yerhafu yentengiselwano ekhethelwe urhwebo lwamazwe angaphandle. Imo yephondo yaphikisa ngelithi ukhuseleko loburhulumente lwawavalela isuti. INkundla Ephakamileyo yathi phantsi kwe-CST Process Claus, urhulumente kufuneka anikeze unyango olunentsingiselo xa iqokelela irhafu phantsi kwenkqubo engavumelaniyo nemithetho yezolawulo. Ngoxa ityala lingagqibanga ukuba umgaqo weDemente weshumi elinesixhenxe weSimente wakwalela isuti, yaseka ukuba amazwe angakwazi ukunqanda ukuphepha ukuditya irhafunxa irha phantsi kwemithetho eqokelelwe kamva efunyenwe ingasebenzi. Isigqibo esinyanzelwe ukunikela iinkqubo zemithetho elawulayo okanye izenzo zenkundla zenkundla yezomthetho zezorhwebo mvume.

ISebe leTaxisi laseVirginia (1993)

Ku , iNkundla ePhakamileyo yanika ingqeqesho yokusetyenziswa kwemithetho-siseko karhulumente kwirhafu karhulumente. Nangona ityala lajoliswe kwimfundiso ye-retroactive, lachaphazela nemithetho yokukhusela ukuthintelwa kwemiqathango. INkundla yale mazwe imele inike amatyala aqokelelwe phantsi komthetho owiswe kamva owiswe phantsi komthetho owiswe phantsi komthetho, kwanokuba urhulumente uxhomekeke kumthetho wokholo olulungileyo. Esi sigqibo saqinisekisa ukuba ukhuselo lwezongangeni-mthetho lungenakuyikhusela kwimbopheleleko yokubuyisa irhafunxa engekho mthethweni ngokusemthethweni, kodwa yashiya imibuzo evulekileyo malunga nemigaqo ekhoyo. Ngokunjalo amazwe amaninzi agqithisile imithetho ecwangci yokuphelisa okanye ukumisela ukukhululeka kwenkundla yenkundla.

Uphuhliso lwakutshanje: Udibaniso lwesiphaluka sokuqala neNtlanganiso yerhafu yeRhulumente

[[NTL:0]. Inkundla yalawula ukuba ngenxa yokuba umgcini-rhafu wayenonyango olwaneleyo kwiinkundla zasekuhlaleni, i-TIA ithintele ulawulo lwesizwe (2005], iFOLE , iFOM) (2005), iFOM) iqwalasele ukuba ikhasi lokufuna ukugunyazisa irhafu kwisikhululo serhafu kumacandelo e-Rommentality . Inkundla yalawula ukuba ngenxa yokuba umxhasi werhafutheli wayeno olufanelekileyo kwiinkundla zelizwe, i-TIA inqande ulawulo lwesizwe, nangona ikhathene rhafuthelo yayichasene nabaphathi belizwe ngaphantsi , ibonakalisa ukudityaniswa kwemithetho efunekayo, nokungagqibeleli mithetho efunekayo, kodwa ibonakalisa ukumelana nezi zivumelwano ezikhoyo.

Izindululo Eziluncedo Kubahlawuli Berhafu

Inikwe ukhuseleko olomeleleyo lokhuseleko lolawulo oluphezulu kunye noMthetho weTshefu yeNqantyisi, imigaqo-nkqubo yerhafu ecelw'iingeni lerhafu karhulumente kufuneka icebe ngocoselelo ubuchule bayo bokuyicima. Inyathelo lokuqala kukuphelisa zonke iingcaciso zolawulo ezifunekayo ngumthetho wesizwe. Amazwe amaninzi anenkqubo zokhuthuzo lolawulo ekufuneka zigqitywe phambi kwayo nayiphi na isuti yenkundla . /as/isigqeba okanye urhulumente. Ukungaphumeleli ukulandela ezi nkqubo kungaphumela ekugxothweni ekusileleni ekuyekeni kwemisweni, hayi nje ukukhuselwa kwegunya.

Okwesibini, abahlawuleli-mali kufuneka bacinge ngokuzisa ityala elifanelekileyo ukuba urhulumente uthintelwe. Amaphondo amaninzi aye amisela imimiselo evumela iisuti okanye isiphumlisi sokuthomalalisa kumasebe erhafu. Iinkundla zelizwe zigunyaziswe ukuva iimfuno zomGaqo-siseko worhulumente kunye, ngoko ke umbuzo karhulumente ungabekwa apho. Ingenelo engundoqo yenkundla karhulumente kukuba uLawulo lwePrefection alisebenzi kwisuti yeQumrhu elichasene norhulumente ngokwawo, kodwa elo zwe lisenokuba linemithetho yalo yokhuseleko lobukhosi, kodwa lisoloko lizifunela ukuhlawulwa kwerhafuthelo.

Okwesithathu, ukuba inkundla karhulumente ithandwa yifolum, umhlawula irhafu kufuneka aphawule umthetho karhulumente onokuthi ngokusemthethweni uthintelo lwebhulorho okanye uxhomekeke kumthetho ex nxalenye Yomntwana ngexa iphikisa ukuba unyango lwesizwe alungo "longezelelekileyo, olukhawulezayo, nolusebenzayo" oku kubandakanya ukubonisa ukuba unyango lwenkundla yenkundla alusebenzi ngenxa yexabiso, ukulibazisa, okanye ukuswela igunya phezu kwabamangalelwa. Iinkundla zidla ngokuthandabuza ezo mpikiswano, ngoko ke ubungqina obunamandla buyafuneka.

Iingxabaxa Ezingomgaqo-nkqubo Nengxoxo Eqhubekayo

Ukhuseleko olulawulayo lwerhafu lubonisa ukuthengiselana ngemithetho-siseko: ukukhusela imiqathango yorhulumente kunye nenkululeko echasene nobungozi bokumangalelwa okungapheliyo, ngeli xesha isanika inkqubo yokulungisa izenzo ezingekho mgaqweni. Abahlalutyi baphikisa ngelithi imfundiso, idibene ne-TIA, ngokunempumelelo, ikhuselwa kwiimeko ezifanelekileyo zolawulo lukarhulumente kwimigaqo-siseko serhafu, ingakumbi kubahlawuleli abancinane abangakwaziyo ukuhlawula inkundla ende.

Izigqibo zakutshanje zeNkundla ePhakamileyo ziye zancitshiswa kancinci ngokukhusela ulawulo lwezikhundla kwezinye iimeko, umzekelo, ngokuvumela iisuti ezithile zoncedo olulindelekileyo . kodwa azitshintshanga ngokubhekiselele kwilizwe. Abahlawuleli berhafu kunye nesiluleko sabo kufuneka bahlale bephaphele utshintsho kumthetho worhulumente, kwakunye nawaphi na amatyala omthetho owiswayo owiswa ngokuchasene nokhuseleko. Umzekelo, iKhomishini, kwingcamango, ukhuseleko lwe-brobosethi yenkqubo efanelekileyo okanye intelekelelo elinganayo phantsi kwe-149th Amend Amend, kodwa umthetho onjalo kufuneka wanelise umgangatho obekelwelo lwe-gruenceance- proparts [FLD:0] we-Boersonv1.[FFLPFFU.97]

Indima Yokwamkela Umthetho KaRhulumente

Amanye amaphondo ngokuzithandela aye andisa imvume yawo ukuze afaneleke njengomthetho, eqonda ukuba ukulungiselela indlela ecacileyo yerhafu yeengxaki zomthetho kukhulisa ubulungisa kunye nomthetho. La maphondo adla ngokuseka iibhodi zolawulo okanye iinkundla zerhafu ukuze acombulule iimbambano ngendlela elungileyo. Amanye alondoloza ukukhusela okubanzi, efuna abahlawuleli berhafu ukuba bakhawuleze beqeqe kwi-odokisi. Ukuqonda urhulumente othile kwiphondo ngalinye kuyingozi kuye kubangela nabani na oceba ukucel

Isiphelo

Ukhuseleko olulawulayo lwesizwe lusasoloko lungumqobo ongundoqo kwiimeko zamakhaya ezilucelomngeni kwimigaqo-nkqubo yerhafu karhulumente. Imfundiso esekelwe kwiSihlalo seshumi elinesi-11 soLawulo lweNkqutyana, ikhusela iimeko kwiinkundla ezininzi zabucala, kodwa ayiphelelanga ngokupheleleyo. I-Asmenti yowisombutho, kunye i-Ex iYoung[ imfundiso inikezela ngezindlela ezibalulekileyo zokukhululeka, nangona nganye ikhuselwe imiqathango enzima kwaye ifuna ukuphendulelwa kwinkundla. I-Thekskha ye-transfer ibangela ukufikelela kolawulo olumayelayo ngemiqatha yemiqatha yemiqathango yombuso. Inkqumfa yomthetho ekhohlo, ixhomekeke ekubonelweni kwemigaqo-mthetho epheleleyo, ukuqondwa okupheleleyo kwemithetho esetyenziswayo, nokusetyenziswa ngokufanelekileyo kwemithetho ephantsi ephantsi komthetho, nokusetyenziswa ngokusetyenziswa yimvume egosameleyo.

Ukuqhubeka ufunda, jonga i [[FLT: 0] Iqumrhu Lemfundo Lephepha leNkcubeko leNkcubeko yeshumi elinesithoba , i-Oyez] unobumba wesishwankathelo se [ McKesson. v. Florida[[FLT][FLT][4]] , [[FLT:]], intengiso yendlela yokuphikisana yerhafuthe yomthetho [[9], "Umbangonyaka onzulu] [umzekelo:[FLT], kunye nohlaluko lwerhabha lokuHluka.[FFF]