Ukwazisa: Ukudibana kweFilosofi yezeMigaqo-siseko

Inkqubo yomthetho yaseMerika ixhomekeke kulungelelwano olululo phakathi komthetho ogwebayo kunye nezenzo zobulungisa. Ngeli xesha abagwebi belindeleke ukuba bachaze umthetho, hayi ukuba ube yiyo, imfundiso yokubandakanya ngokukhethayo , inkqubo esetyenziswa ngayo iBhili yamaLungelo kurhulumente, kwaye yenziwa yiyo ngabagwebi abathathi nxaxheba ekukhuliseni imigaqo-siseko. Eli nqaku lihlolisisa indlela i-clivivism enyanze ngayo indaleko yokuzibandakanya nabalawuli, ukuguqula imigaqo elinganiselwe yemithetho ekhuselekileyo kumgangatho wesizwe wenkululeko yabantu ngabanye.

Isenzo somthetho, esidla ngokuchazwa njengemithetho ebonisa izicwangciso zobuqu okanye inkqubo ekhethwayo kunokuba kunamathele ngokungqongqo kwimizekelo okanye kumbhalo, kuye kwanconywa kwagxekwa. Kumongo wokubandakanya okukhethiweyo, ubugqila buthetha iNkundla ePhakamileyo eyandisa amalungelo athile kumazwe akwimeko ngesiseko, kwanaxa umGaqo-siseko wantla wawungayalelanga ngokungqalileyo isicelo esinjalo. Ukuqonda le nkqubo kufuna kuqala ukuqonde ukuba yintoni ekhethayo kwaye kutheni ibalulekile.

Ichaza ulungiso lokuKhetha

Inkqubano ekhethelweyo yimfundiso yomgaqo-siseko ekhutshwa kwi-Adrect of Demendment’s Acception of the 14th Procession Claus. Eli binzana lithi akukho rhulumente oya “kuphelisa nawuphi na umntu wobomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla, ngaphandle kwenkqubo efanelekileyo yomthetho.” INkundla Ephakamileyo ikutolike oku njengokuthetha ukuba amalungelo athile asisiseko kwiBill of Rights “aqukiwe” ngokuchasene norhulumente .

Le ndlela iyahluka ngokuququzelela, okuya kwenza ukuba ulungiselelo lweBhili yamaLungelo lusebenze kuMazwe amakhulu. IJaji iHugo Black ixhase ukuququzelelwa okupheleleyo kodwa yaphulukana nengxoxo. Ukukhetha ingxubusho kwaphumelela, inika iNkundla imvume yokugqiba ukuba ngawaphi amalungelo “ayinkululeko eyayalelweyo” (ibinzana elisuka kwiJaji i-Cardozo kwi-Palko v. Connecticut[FL:1], 1937) kwaye ngoko lifanele ukugcinwa komthetho nxamnye nalathiso.

Izenzo zomthetho zingena kwinqanaba kuba iNkundla ikhetha amalungelo ngokwayo isebenzisa igunya. Iinkundla kufuneka zigqibe ukuba ngawaphi amalungelo asisiseko, yaye umgwebo usoloko ubandakanya iimbono ezingeyomfuneko zembali, isithethe, nemilinganiselo yanamhlanje.

Imeko Yembali: Ukususela Kwindawo Elinganiselweyo Ukusa Kwisenzo Sokwenza Izinto

IXesha le-Dual Federalism (Pre-1920)

Phambi kwenkulungwane yama-20, iBhili yamaLungelo yasebenza kurhulumente wesizwe kuphela. Inkundla ePhakamileyo egcinwe kwi- Barron v. Baltimore (1833) ukuba uHlaziyo lwesihlanu aluzange lubophe mithetho. Oku kwahlula okungqongqo phakathi kwemibutho yorhulumente ne-orhulumente kwabonisa intanda-ntanda-bulumko yokuthintela: iinkundla ezibekelwe ukumisela imithetho yowiso-mthetho zaze zaphepha imithetho yesibini phantsi kweBhili-Malungelo.

Uhlaziyo Lohlaziyo [1] Ingakumbi iNkundla yakhupha ummandla welizwe ngokubeka imiqathango karhulumente kumaphondo, kodwa iNkundla yaqala yafunda ngokucutha. Ityala leNdlu lokuNcina (1873] [183], iNkundla yawathintela amalungelo okanye ama-Immunizi ka-Claus, ishiya i-Sect Proces Clausle njengesigne engundoqo yokungena ekhompyutheni. Kwanangoko, iNkuquluko yayinobulumko, ifuna “imeko engqalileyo nekhawulezileyo“ kwizithethe nakwisazela sabantu bethu, ishiye i-Claus ekwimo yesiqhelo nesezazela abantu bethu, ishiya i-'ikhul'e."

I Shift Iqala: [[FLT: 0] Gitlow v. New York (1925)

Isiphelo sotshintsho safika Gitlow v. New York, apho iNkundla Ephakamileyo okokuqala yasebenzisa khona ilungiselelo lokuLandlwa kweMpatho Yokuqala `inkululeko yokuthetha]. Nangona iNkundla yaxhasa isiqinisekiso sikaGitlow sokupapasha isoliti yoluntu, yavakalisa ukuba “inkululeko yokuthetha kunye nomatshini wokushicilela, ekhuselwa yiFirst Amendment ukusuka kwiBridgmentment nguCongress [1] iphakathi kwamalungelo ongundoqo kunye ‘ nendlela yokukhusela iprojectsssss efunekayo kwinkqubo efunekayo yeGitlow Brefection ukusuka ekukhulisweni kwe-Geneth Develoption.”

Le ngxelo yabonisa ukuma okutsha kokugweba: iNkundla yayikulungele ukukhusela amalungelo abantu ngokukhutheleyo kwiizenzo zikarhulumente, nangona umbhalo weSihlaziyo sokuqala ukhankanya kuphela iNgqungquthela. Abahlalutyi bachaza oku kuthatha inxaxheba kuba iNkundla yayifunda amalungelo angaphantsi kwi-Active Process Claus engazange ixhaswe ngokucacileyo. Kodwa yavula ucango lweliza lamatyala okuququlutya.

Ityala elingundoqo Eligweba Umthetho Wezahlulelo

Izigqibo ezilandelayo ezibalaseleyo zibonisa indlela iinkundla ezisebenza ngokuqhubekayo ezakha ngayo isakhiwo ngokucokisekileyo sokuzibandakanya. Ityala ngalinye lalifuna ukuba abagwebi bagqibe enoba ilungelo elithile libaluleke kakhulu kangangokuba kufuneka lisebenze kwindlu yowiso-mthetho yelizwe, kwibhunga lesixeko nakwisebe lamapolisa elikwelo lizwe.

Mapp v. Ohio (1961): Umthetho wobuNtloko Uphenjelelwa eUnited States

Phambi , ukhuseleko loMphetho-mva wesine ekuphengululweni okungekho ngqiqweni nokuxhuzula lwalunganyanzeliswanga kubaphathi bakarhulumente. Umthetho wokuzikhulula (ukungasebenzisi gwenxa) ukusebenzisa ubungqina obufunyenwe ngokungekho mthethweni ekuvavanyeni, qha kwinkundla zikarhulumente. Walf v. Colorado[ [1949]], iNkubonele ukuba xa uGawula wesine ngokwawo ngokwawo wawusetyenziswa, umthetho we-ocetary wawungeyonto efunekayo.

Kodwa .Mapp v.O., iNkundla yaguqula uWolf yaza yabeka umthetho wokuzikhulula kuwo onke amazwe. IJaji Tom C. Clark yaphikisa ukuba ngaphandle konyango lokususa, uphengululo olulungileyo oluchasene nophendlo olungekhoyo lungaba “luhlobo lwamagama.” Esi sigqibo sasingumxhasi ngenxa yokuba sawiswa yimithetho yakutshanje kwaye sadala umgangatho wesizwe ofanayo, ngokufanelekileyo inyanzelela iinkundla zelizwe ukuba zamkele umthetho omninzi oye walahlwayo. Abagxeki besithi iNkuNkulwano yayingumthetho osuka kwibhedri. Abaxhasi bathi kwakuyimfuneko ukwenza uHluko-wesine.

Gideon v. Wainwright (1963): Ilungelo kwiSicelo

[[NTL:0] Brady v. (1942]), iNkundla yagqiba kwelokuba uHlaziyo lweSithandathu lweMimiselo yeNkqutyana lwelungelo lokunika isiluleko esisetyenziswa kuphela kwiimeko ezithile (amatyala akhethekileyo okanye xa abamangalelwa babebuthathaka ngokukhethekileyo). Kodwa Gideon v. Wainr, iNkundla irhoxibelele [[[FLT: 4.] BET] kwaye ibambelele kwicebiso elifanelekileyo lokunika ingcebiso lingundoqo kwaye isebenza kuzo zonke ii-preliny projecters.

Esi sigqibo singumzekelo obalaseleyo wokwenza umsebenzi wobulungisa: iNkundla yaguqula ingqondo yayo, yandisa umlinganiselo wesiqinisekiso somgaqo-siseko, yaza yanyanzeleka ukuba kunikwe amagqwetha abamangalelwa abagqwesi. Isiphumo saba sisixhobo esikhulu sokuhlasela urhulumente. Isigqibo asizange sisekelwe kumbhalo omtsha kodwa kuluvo olutsha kodwa oluthiwa kwakhona “inkululeko” ifuna. UJaji Black, oye wachasayo BETS, wabhala uluvo [[FLT:] [[FLT]], ephikisa ukuba “umntu othenjiweyo kwinkundla... ongomntu ongekho semthethweni, akanakuqinisekiswa ukuba anikwe igqwethagethi." ngaphandle kokuba anikwe isiluleko esilungileyo.

[[UMKQUBO:0] Miranda v. Arizona (1966: Izilumkiso zamapolisa noNkqubelano

Ilungelo loMphetho wesihlanu nxamnye nolwahluko lwayo lafakwa kumthetho [[FLT: 0] uMalloy v. Hogan (1964]). Kodwa imanda v.[[FLT]] yaya phambili ngokufuna amapolisa ukuba azise ukukrokraza amalungelo awo phambi kokuncinwa. Inkundla yadala umthetho we-procracybal [“Miranda"]. [=ukukhusela ekunene]. Oku kwaba ngumsebenzi wokwahlulelwa kumlinganiselo omkhulu: iNkukhupha umthetho kwinkundla nganye yelizwe. Abagxeki batyhola ukuba iNkuwo ithewe indima yayo yangaphezulu kwaye yahlupha. [5]

[[UMTL:0] McDonald v. Chicago (2010): IsiHlazi- Amendo sesibini

Kutshanje, iNkundla yasebenzisa uHlaziyo lwesibini lokugcina nokuphatha izixhobo kumazwe [[FLT: 0]. IChicago. Kwiminyaka emibini ngaphambili, idilifility of Columbia v. [[FLT:] [2008]] [iNkundla], iNkundla yamkela ilungelo lokuxhobisa ngamanye amazwe phantsi koMphetho wesibini, kodwa eso sigqibo sabopha urhulumente wesizwe kuphela. [[FLT:]] uMGawula [[FLT:] [[FLT]], 5-4], ukholelwa ukuba uninzi lwasekunene lubalulekile kwaye lusebenza ukuchaza ngokusetyenziswa kweMboniso oluninzi lweNxombolo. Ukuchasana okuthe kratya okuthe kratya kokungangenisiweyo kweNko yeNku.

Indlela Imithetho Yomthetho Yezahlulelo Ekhetha Ngayo

Isenzo somthetho sivumela ukuququzelelwa ngokukhetha ngeendlela ezininzi. Okokuqala, iNkundla ivumela ukuba ichaze iMbengo ye-Act of the 14th Amendment Claus iquke amalungelo angaphantsi kweBhili yamaLungelo . Ngokufana nelungelo lokufumana izinto zobuqu ([[FLT: 0]]] iConnecticut[FLT][1], 1965]) okanye ilungelo lokutshata ([FLT:]Obergefell v. Hodges, 2015]). Ezi azikho “zizinto ezicacingisiweyo” ezikhethekileyo (ezisebenzisa ii-ayisensiti) kodwa zibonisa ukufundwa kobugqhinga: [[[FLT] [2] [intellet] imigaqo ebanzi yokhuseleko lobuqu lomntu ngamnye].

Okwesibini, ukwenza iCubianism yenza ukuba iNkundla ikwazi ukuyeka imithetho nezenzo zikarhulumente ezingqubanayo nemilinganiselo yenkululeko. Umzekelo, xa iNkundla yaquka ulwalelo lweSinyusi seNkundla sesibhozo kwisohlwayo senkohlakalo nesothukayo Robinson v. California [1962]), yasebenzisa umgangatho wesizwe ukumisela isigwebo solwaphulo-mthetho. Abagwebi abagwebi abasemthethweni babekulungele ukuthi isohlwayo esithile sombuso (ngokusetyenziswa kweziyobisi ngokwaphula umthetho) saphula “imilinganiselo ehambayo yesidima ephawula inkqubela yebutho labantu abakhulayo.”

Okwesithathu, i-applicim yomthetho ingenza isantya sokudibanisa. ngokwembali, iNkundla yathatha inyathelo elithe ngcembe: kwathabatha ukususela ngowe-1975 ukuya ku1969 ukuquka utshintsho oluninzi lwezigqibo zokuqala ezisibhozo. Kodwa kwixesha leNkundla iWarren (1953-1969), i-Slivism ixinzelele ixesha, ibandakanya i-D5, yesihlanu, yeSi6, neye-Extenth, kunye neSindululo soMgamkelo-ngaphindi-mthetho. Ngaphandle kwabagwebi abaxhasi, inkqubo isenokungagqibekanga, mhlawumbi ingangaphelelanga kumalungelo athenjiswayo ngokuchasene namazwe.

Ukuxokisana Nokugxekwa

Ityala Lokufikelela Ngokugqithisileyo Kweejaji

Abagxeki baphikisa ngelithi izenzo zolawulo-demokhrasi zithoba isidima solawulo lwedemokhrasi. Xa iinkundla zimisela imithetho efanayo yesizwe kumaphondo, ziyazibetha ngoyaba izigqibo zonyulo lwendlu yowiso-mthetho kunye neenkqubo zonyulo lwasekuhlaleni. Umzekelo, emva Gideon[ kunye [[FLT]]] [[FLT]]] [3], zichaza ukuba kufuneka zichithe imali eninzi kubakhuseli bakawonke-wonke-wonke kunye noqeqesho lwamapolisa. [=]

Izangqa ezifana neJaji uAntonin Scalia zisoloko zigxeka ulwamkelo oluqukunjelwa njengolungekho mthethweni. Kukwahlukana kwakhe McDonald, Scalia wabhala ukuba iNkundla akufunekanga “isebenzise" amalungelo asisiseko; endaweni yoko, kufuneka ijonge kumbhalo nentsingiselo yokuqala yeSindululo se 144. Waphikisa ukuba ulwimi oluvulekileyo lolwimi lwe-ST Procescle Claine lwaluhlolelwe ukukhusela umgangatho oqhelekileyo, hayi ukusebenza njengovavanyo olungenanto lwejaji ukuba banyathe iimbono zabo.

Ukukhusela Umthetho Wezejaji

Abaxhasi baphendula ngokuthi ubuGawulayo obulawulayo buyinkuselo efunekayo kwimithetho-mthetho okanye kwizenzo zolawulo lobuzwilakhe. IBhili yamaLungelo yenzelwe ukukhusela amalungelo amancinci kulawulo oluninzi. Ukuba iinkundla zithe zawalibala kakhulu ukuba zimisele imithetho yowiso-mthetho, inkululeko esisiseko ingayekwa. Njengoko iJaji uRobert Jackson ngokudumileyo yatshoyo, “IBhili yamaLungelo asiyosivumelwano sokuzibulala.” Abagwebi bomthetho baqinisekisa ukuba akukho rhulumente onokuthi ahluthe umntu wenkululeko engundoqo echaza ubumi baseMerika.

Ngokubhekele phaya, ukuqukumbelana okukhethiweyo kuye kwaba yimpumelelo esebenzisekayo. Kuye kwayila isiseko esizinzileyo sesizwe senkululeko yabemi ngexesha lishiyeka igumbi lombuso ukwandisa ukhuseleko. Umzekelo, iimeko zinganika ukhuseleko olubanzi lokuthetha olukhululekileyo kunokuba kufuneke nguMgqibo wokuqala, kodwa azinakuwela phantsi komgangatho. Izigqibo zomthetho zithintele ukwaphula umthetho okungalawulekiyo . Okufana nokuthuthunjiswa kwamapolisa Brown v. Missississippi[[[FLD:1] [193] phambi kokuba uLawulo lweFind Amend lweMpanziso-yo ifakwe ngokusemthethweni ngezantsi]

Izicelo Zale Mihla Nemibuzo Engaconjululwanga

Namhlanje, imfundiso ekhethayo igqibekile kakhulu. INkundla Ephakamileyo iye yaquka phantse onke amalungiselelo eSihlanu, sesihlanu, seSithandathu, kunye neSihlaziyi sesibhozo. Okungaphawulwayo kuquke iSigqibo sesibini (ngoku sifakwe ]] McDald[), isiHlangiso seSihlaziyithiso seSithathu (esingafakwanga ncam kodwa esinqabileyo), kunye noMlawuli oMkhulu weSihlaziyi (ongafakwanga, ngoko ke amaphondo angasebenzisa izigqibo eziphezulu okanye iindlebe eziphambili kwinketho). Inkundla ayizange ifake izicwangciso zokulungisa iinkundla zesizwe kwityala. Ukuquququzelelana nokulunga komkelo lwesizwe kwinkundla ye-Genetic Amentellite.

Noko ke, intanda-bulumko esisiseko yesenzo sokugweba ingekadibani. Ukumiswa kwezigwebi ezixhasa ukuthintelwa kungamisa ulwando oluthe chatha okanye kwada kwaqengqeleka emva kwemizekelo ekhoyo. Ngokomzekelo, ezinye izigwebo ezithe ngeendlela zokulungisa ziye zafuna ukutolikwa kwakhona koMgqibo wesibini okanye umthetho wokungaquki. Ikamva lokuququzelelwa kwelungu elikhethayo lingaxhomekeka ekuzimiseleni kweNkundla ukusebenza qha, okanye ukunqanda amalungelo akhoyo.

Ngaphezu koko, ukunyuka “komtshato womthetho” njengendlela ephuculiweyo kunesixhobo sobunzululwazi esiqhelekileyo kucebisa indlela ephakathi: iinkundla kufuneka ziwakhusele ngokukhutheleyo amalungelo omgaqo-siseko ngaphandle kokubandakanyeka kwimithetho. Esi siseko, sixhaswa nguMgwebi Clarence Thomas kwezinye iimbono, siya kubangela ukuqukwa kwentsingiselo yasekuqaleni yamaGqibeko e 144 oMphengululi weMigaqo-siseko okanye u-Immunion Claus. Ukuba iyamkeleka, ingawaguqula amalungelo agunyazisweyo kwaye asetyenziswe ngokuphangaleleyo.

Isiphelo: Ingxaki Engapheliyo Enzulu EngoMthetho waseMerika

Isenzo somthetho sokwenza isigwebo somthetho singumsebenzi ongundoqo ekulungiseni uququzelelo olukhethiweyo. Ukusuka GITY ukuya kuMphini-Mc] [, iNkundla ePhakamileyo iye yathatha inyathelo eliphinda-phindiweyo ukunyusa amalungelo karhulumente abemi, ngokufuthi ngokuchasene neminqweno karhulumente. Le nkqubo inyuse inkululeko yomntu ngamnye, imanyanisa uhlanga phantsi kwemilinganiselo yesiseko somthetho, kunye nokhuseleko oluqinileyo ngoku oluthi ngoku lwaseMerika alwayo aluthathele phantsi kwemvume.

Kanti uxinzelele oluphakathi kolawulo lomthetho kunye nokulawula isigwebo alunakuconjululwa ngokupheleleyo. Ukukhetha kufuna abagwebi ukuba benze izahlulelo zexabiso ezithi zibaluleke kangakanani na inkululeko ```imisebenzi ebandakanya intanda-bulumko yomntu ngokungenakuphepheka. Ukuba ubani ukugqala oku njengokusetyenziswa okuphezulu kolawulo lomthetho okanye ukuthatyathwa kwegunya ledemokhrasi kuxhomekeke kwiimbono zomntu ezibanzi zotoliko lomgaqo-siseko. Oko kungaphikiyo kukuba ngaphandle komxhasi wenkqubela, iBhili yamaLungelo inokuba luxwebhu olungundoqo kakhulu, ishiya amaMelika amaninzi engenazo iingxaso ezibalulekileyo ekuthinteleni urhulumente.

Ukuqhubeka ufunda, jonga uhlalutyo kwiprojekthi ye- Oyez kwimbali, i- iQumrhu loLwazi lomthetho lweZiko lezemfundo [ ukwenzela uqwalaselo lwemfundiso, kunye [[FLT]] ne[FLT]Melika Bar system projects project yemeko yembali [ icebo. Ezi mithombo zinika uluvo olunzulu kwindlela isebenza ngayo ikomiti eqhubekela ngayo ukubumba intsingiselo yenkululeko yomgaqo-siseko eUnited States.