Ukuqonda amalungelo omGaqo-siseko kwinkqubo yoMthetho waseMerika

UMgaqo-siseko waseUnited States, owagunyaziswa ngo-1788, waseka inkqubo yokulawula eye yanyamezela ngaphezu kweenkulungwane ezimbini. Embilinini yawo, umGaqo-siseko uchaza isakhiwo sikarhulumente worhulumente worhulumente kwaye ubala amagunya ngeli xesha ugcina amanye kumazwe. Noko ke, yiBhili yamaLungelo e̬ ishumi lokuqala lokulungisa imigaqo-nkqubo ekhoyo i̬ kunye nokulungisa okulandelayo okuyila iqhinga lenkululeko yomntu ngamnye elikhuselwe kwisiphazamiso sikarhulumente. La malungelo aquka inkululeko yokuthetha, yonqulo, nendibano; ilungelo lokuphatha izixhobo; ikhusela ekuphandeni nasekuxhuzumeni okungekho ngqiqweleneyo; ukufaneleka komthetho; kunye nokukhuselwa komthetho olinganayo phantsi komthetho.

Amalungelo omGaqo-siseko akami ndawonye. Ayaguquka ngokutshintsha okudluliswa yiBhunga kwaye avunywa ngurhulumente, ngomthetho owiswe yiBhunga, nangenkcazelo yezomthetho yinkundla yephondo. INkundla Ephakamileyo, njengenkundla ephakamileyo kweli lizwe, inegunya elipheleleyo lokuchaza umGaqo-siseko, kwaye izigqibo zayo zingawaguqula ngokusisiseko amalungelo nentsingiselo yamalungelo omgaqo-siseko. Eli gunya lokutolika libunjwa luludwe lweentanda-ntanda-bulumko zezamthetho, kuquka nenkqubo yokumiselwa komthetho, efuna ukusebenzisa umGaqo-siseko njengoko kuqondwa ngexesha lokwenziwa kwawo, kunye nokuphila komGaqo-siseko, okuwujonga umGaqo-siseko njengoxwebhu olunamandla olumele lulungelelanise ukutshintsha imilinganiselo neemeko.

Indaleko yamalungelo omgaqo-siseko iphenjelelwa kukudityaniswa kwempikiswano zomthetho, imbali, inkqubano yentlalo, kunye nokuyilwa kweNkundla ngokwayo. Amashumi eminyaka akutshanje aye abona ukuguquka kokunyikima kwindlela aqondwa ngayo amalungelo, ukusuka ekulinganani komtshato nokuzimela ukulingana kwendlela yokuzala kunye nokuzimela inkululeko yokuthetha emsebenzini nasekukhuseleni ukucalucalulwa. Ukuqonda ukuchatshazelwa kwezi ziganeko kufuna ukuxilongwa ngokusondeleyo kwezona zilandelayo zeNkundla yaloo njongo kunye nemikhosi eyawabumbayo.

Izigqibo ezingundoqo zeNkundla Ephakamileyo ezaguqula amalungelo omGaqo-siseko

Izibuko leNkundla ePhakamileyo kwinkulungwane engamashumi amabini anesihlanu liquke amanye amatyala abalulekileyo kwimbali yomgaqo-siseko waseMelika. Izigqibo ezilandelayo zibalaselisa ukuguquka kwamalungelo omgaqo-siseko kwiindidi ezininzi zobomi bamaMelika.

Obergefell v. Hodges (2015): Ukulingana komtshato njengelungelo elisisiseko

Kwisigqibo esiphawula i-5-4, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yathi ukuHlakulelwa kweMimiselo yeMigaqo-nkqubo yeshumi elinesine kufuna ukuba onke amaphondo afumane imvume kunye nokuqaphela imitshato phakathi kwabantu ababini besini esinye. Ukubhalela abaninzi, uMahluleli uAnthony Kennedy waphikisa ukuba ilungelo lokutshata liyinkululeko esisiseko ekhuselwe yi-Curvect Claus e-IC, kwaye ukungavumi ukuba izibini ezithe zangena exesheni zifumaneke ngomtshato waphula umthetho olinganayo womtshato. Isigqibo esamiselwa ngaphambi kokuba kuwiswe umtshato, kuquka uLoving v. Virginia[FLT: 1] [197], eyathimba imiqathango ye-bala ephakathi kwemitshato yomtshato, neyayilwayo i-uhlanga-mthetho womtshato.[FLD.[FL:2]][FFF]]]

[[FLT: 0] Isigqibo seNkundla [i-Oberg] sawisa imithetho ye-sodoma kodwa asizange sithethe ngomtshato. Isantya esikhawulezayo sotshintsho lwentlalo, esiqhutywa yimibutho ejongene nemithetho yezomthetho, isantya sikawonke-wonke, intelekelelo kawonke-wonke, kunye nemimiselo ephantsi yenkundla, zadala umongo apho iNkundla yayikulungele ukuqaphela ilungelo elitsha lomthetho. Isigqibo sihlala singummiselo wengxoxo ngezenzo zomthetho, urhulumente, ulawulo lwenkundla yesizwe, kunye nendima yenkundla ekhuselwayo ngokuchasene namalungelo abantu abambalwa.

Impilo yomfazi Wonke v. Hellerstedt (2016): Ukukhusela ukukhupha izisu

Ku i-Whome Woman's Health v. Hellersstedt, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yawisa iziphumo ezimbini zomthetho waseTexas owabeka imithetho engqongqo kwiikliniki zokuqhomfa. La malungiselelo acelw'ucekisayo afuna oogqirha abaqhomfayo ukuba bavume amalungelo kwisibhedlele esikufuphi kwaye bafuna iziko lokuqhomfa ukuze bahlangabezane nemigangatho yotyando lotyando. Inkundla, kwakhona kwisigqibo esingu 5-4 esabhalwa nguJasti Stephen Breyer, yasebenzisa "unist thwele" umlinganiso omiswe ku umgangatho wokuqholoza isibhedlele. Umthetho wetyala [FLT][FLT][FLT][F:3][193]. Umthetho wenkundla wabamba ezi zimfuno zempilo eziluncedo kwaye wabeka ingxaki ephambili kumabhinqa afuna ukuqhomfa.

Esi sigqibo sasibalulekile kuba saphinda saqinisekisa ukugcinwa okusembindini Roe v. Wade kunye ICasey ngexesha inika isiseko sokuqwalasela ukuchana kwemithetho yesizwe yokuqhomfa. Inkundla yagxininisa ukuba iinkundla kufuneka zilinganise imithwalo ebekwe ngumthetho nxamnye neenzuzo ezithiwa iyasebenza. Le ndlela inika isixhobo sokwahlula imithetho engqongqo yelizwe ngaphaya kwelizwe. Kodwa, isigqibo sikwasibhenca amacandelo anzulu kwiNkundla, esiza kuvela ngokupheleleyo kwiimeko zamva.

Janus v. AFSCME (208): Inkululeko Yokuthetha

.Janus v. AFSCME wabhukuqa isigqibo seNkundla ngo 1977 i-Abood v. iDetroit Board yemfundo[, eyayivumele amaqumrhu kawonke-wonke aqokelele "amacandelo ahlukeneyo" iindleko zokuhlawulela iindleko zokuthetha ngentlalo. I-Plattiff, uMarkus, uJanus, waphikisa oko kufuna ukuba ahlawule irhafu yeminali yenzelo yemanyano ayixhasanga ukugqwethwa kwakhe koLuhlulwa koLuhlulo lokuqala ukuze akhululeke ukuthetha ngokukhululekileyo kunye nonxulumano. Kwisigqibo esibhalwe nguSahluleli Alito, inkundla yavuma, ingulo ingxolo enyanzela ukuba ithethe ngentetho engeyiyo kwimicimbi yombutho-o-mthetho.

Isigqibo saba neziphumo ezikhawulezileyo nezifikelela kude zomsebenzi olungelelanisiweyo. Amaqumrhu ecandelo loluntu lonke elizweni ayejongene nokuncipha kwamalungu kunye nengeniso encitshisiweyo, njengoko abangengomalungu ayengenakuphinda afuneke ukuba kuhlawulelwe iindleko. Esi sigqibo saphakamisa imibuzo ebanzi malunga nomgangatho weSigqibo Sokuqala soMmiselo-Mmiselo kumbandela wenkxaso enyanzelekileyo. Ingqiqo yeNkundla yasetyenziswa kumatyala okuqala okuHlaziywa koMmiselo, kuquka [[FLT:] iZiko loMkhosi loMkhosi weNtlanganiso weNtsalelaniso, iquka imbono enkulu [[FLD] wesizwe weNtsalelo kunye noLawulo lweNtsalelaniso-yo-V. Becerra[FLT] [[FLT] [2088], eyabetha umthetho waseKhalifonini ofuna ukumiselwa kwemiqathango yotyalwano yoluvo, inika inkxaso yemali.

Bostock v. Clayton County (2020): LGBTQ+ Amalungelo Phantsi kweSihloko VII

Kwisigqibo esinentsingiselo enzulu yamalungelo omgaqo-siseko, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yabanjwa ku Bostock v. Clayton County iSihlomelo VII soMthetho wamaLungelo ka-1964 sithintela ucalucalulo olusekelwe kwimbonakalo yesondo okanye ubufana. Inkundla yaqiqa ngelithi akunakwenzeka ukuba umntu abe ngoonobufanasini okanye ngomntu ongomnye. UJaji Neil Gorfoth wabhala uluvo olu-3-3, esebenzisa uhlalutyo lwemibhalo ukugqiba ukuba ucalucalulo "ngenxa yesondo" ngokubhekiselele kwimbonakalo yesini naxanduva ubufana. Inkundla yaqiqal'ilo lokuba kungabi nako ukucalula ngokucalula umntu ngokobufanayo okanye ngokulinganayo.

[[NTL:0] Isigqibo se-Bostock asizange sitolike ngqo umGaqo-siseko, kodwa impembelelo yaso kumalungelo omgaqo-siseko iyinto eqinisekileyo. Ngokuqinisekisa ukuba izigidi ze-LGBTQ + abasebenzi zikhuselwe ekucalukeni, isalathisi siqinisa umgaqo wokuba ukulingana nesidima kusemgangathweni waseMelika. Isigqibo sikwabonisa indlela utoliko lwemithetho esemthethweni olungahambisela ngayo amalungelo kwiindlela ezinxulumene nokhuseleko lwesiseko. Ngokulandela [FLT]], iBosstock, iinkundla ezisezantsi zisebenzisa ukuqiqaza okufanayo kwiimeko ezibandakanya ukunyamekela impilo, izindlu, imfundo, ukunwebela ingqiqo kwesigqibo sesigqibo somgaqo-mo-mogrative.

Dobs v. Jackson Women’s Health Organization (2022): Isiphelo se Roe

Esona sigqibo sibalulekileyo nesiyimpikiswano yakutshanje yeNkundla ePhakamileyo yeNkundla ePhakamileyo singu uDobs v. Jackson Amen’s Health Organization, eyalawula Roe v. UWade[[FLT]] [19773] [[FLT]] [4]] ne [[FLT]] Platmarybood Hootalvbs v. Case [[[FLT:]] [1992], ukuphelisa umgaqo-siseko osemthethweni wesizwe ekunene wokukhupha isisu. Ityala lalibandakanya umthetho weMississississippi owalela ukuqhosa emva kweeveki ezili-15 zokukhulelwa. Umthetho uSamuelmuel 20 ubhala ulumo oluninzi, uthelwe zezinye izigwebo ezine eziqhelekileyo, ubambe ukuba umGorho oweyokurhoyo ukuba ulwe ligunya lokukhupha.

Isigqibo samaDobs simela eyona ngxaki ibalulekileyo yamalungelo omgaqo-siseko kwimbali yeNkundla yale mihla. Uninzi lwasebenzisa indlela yoqobo, luphikisa ngelithi ukuqhomfa akusekelwenga nzulu kwimbali okanye kwisithethe sohlanga kwaye ngoko ke akufaneleki njengesiseko samalungelo phantsi kwe-Sect Procession Claus we-145 Demendment. Ukungavumelani, uSeans Stephen Breyer, Sonia Sotomayor, kunye no-Elenagan Kagan baphikisa ngelithi isigqibo esisuliweyo samabhinqa asekunene aye axhomekeke kwimbali ekwayo iminyaka emalunga namashumi amahlanu kwaye athobayo kulula ukubekwa phantsi kweNkuhlela.

Iziphumo ze u-Dobbs zididekile. Iimeko ezininzi ezimiselwe kufuphi noluvo lwayo lokokugqibela lokuqhomfa, ngeli xesha ezinye zifuduswa ukukhusela ukufikelela. Esi sigqibo sikwaye sabangela ukuhlaziywa komgaqo-siseko wesizwe, imithetho karhulumente, nokufumaneka kwamayeza okuqhomfa kwi-U.S. Postal Service. Umthetho weNkubonelelo uguqule ubume bezopolitiko, ukuba ngumba ongundoqo kunyulo kunye nengxoxo eqhubekayo emalunga namandla ewongamele ikomiti, urhulumente, i-galelo-mthetho we-omatilo-siseko.

Indima yeNkcubeko ekuguqukeni komGaqo-siseko

Indaleko yamalungelo omgaqo-siseko ayinyanzeliswa kuphela ziimpikiswano zomthetho okanye intanda-bulumko yomthetho. Imibutho yentlalo iye yadlala indima eguqulayo ekuguquleni isimo sengqondo sikawonke-wonke, ekuphembeleleni umthetho, kwaye ekugqibeleni yayisekisa iinkundla ukuba zamkele iinkcazelo ezintsha zomGaqo-siseko. INkqutyana yamaLungelo yabemi yoo-1950 kunye nowe-1960 ngumzekelo ongowesambuku, ukuvelisa umthetho obalulekileyo nezigqibo zeNkulwano ePhakamileyo ezachitha iparamente nezo kukhuselwa amalungelo okuvota.

I LGBTQ+ + amalungelo anikezela umzekeliso onamandla. Ukuqalisa ngezibheno zaMadoleki ngo-1969 kwaye kuqhubekeka kumashumi eminyaka e-awundisholo, i-ligiga, kunye nemfundo kawonke-wonke, abaxhasi batshintsha ngokuthe ngcembe uluvo lukawonke-wonke kulwalamano olufanayo nomtshato. Intshukumo iphumeze oloyiso olungokwasemthethweni iTexas, , United States v.[FLT] kunye nezigqibo zolu hlobo ngalunye.[FLT: 3] , [[FLT]] [iglg], [iiiiiindlela ebanzi yokwaluvoluvo oluthekileyo]

Umbutho wamalungelo okuzala useke umthetho womgaqo-siseko, nangona unamatyala athe axhatshazwa kakhulu. Umbutho wamalungelo wamabhinqa woo-1960 kunye nowe-1970 unike umongo we- Roe v. Wade[, kwaye ngokulandelayo i-advocacy iphembele umthetho kunye nokumiselwa kwemithetho yezomthetho. Ukubhukuqwa [FLT]] [[FLT: 4.] uDobths[ uphelise amaza amatshatsha ngokomthetho wesenzo sokuvelisa inzala, kunye nabaxhasi bemo yemithetho e-ogractivement, i-ligtig, kunye nomthetho-ognome okukhusela ukuqhola.

Ulwalamano phakathi kwemibutho yentlalo neenkundla lunzima. Iintshukumo zingaguqula iwindow ye-Overton, ukwenza iingcamango ezichaphazelekayo ngaphambili zibonakale zisemagqabini. Zingakwabumba iimpikiswano zomthetho ezinikelwe kwiinkundla ze ziphembelele ukukhethwa kweejaji. Noko ke, ulwalamano alukho lwalathiswa: izigqibo zenkundla zinokuvuselela okanye zithotyelwe phantsi kwentsebenziswano, kwaye isantya sotshintsho lomgaqo-siseko sixhomekeke ekuqulukweni kwejaji nemekobume obubanzi bezobupolitika.

Intsingiselo Yokuzinza Nokungagungqi

Imfundiso ye istatus desis — umgaqo wokuba iinkundla zimele zilandele imodeli — inika uzinzo nokuxelwa kwangaphambili kumthetho womgaqo-siseko. Noko ke, iNkundla ePhakamileyo isoloko iqonda ukuba imizekelo ayiphelelanga ngokupheleleyo, ingakumbi kwiimeko zomgaqo-siseko apho ulungiso lungavela kwiNkundla ngokwayo okanye kwinkqubo enzima yokulungisa umGaqo-siseko. Inkundla iye yawalawula amanyathelo ayo amaninzi embalini embali, ngokufuthi kwiimeko ezibandakanya amalungelo kunye nokukhulula.

Dobs v. Jackson’s Health Organization yaphakamisa umbuzo wemodeli ngendlela echuliweyo. Abaninzi baphikisa ngelithi Roe kunye [[FLT:] [FLT]] [[FLT]] [ ibiyiyo engalunganga ngokuchasayo" kwaye yayonakalisa inkundla ngokusahlula uluvo lukawonke-wonke. Umbangavumelani ukuba ukubekwa kwemimiselo kuzenzekele ngokwayo ukufaneleka kweNkuhlalo nokuthotyekela kokuzinziswa komgaqo-siseko. Le ngxoxo ibonakalisa ukungavisisani okunzulu malunga nokungalungi kolwazi lwemithetho-siseko kunye nendima yeNkuhlalo lweNkuhlalo.

Njengoko abaphengululi nabathathi-nxaxheba beqhubeka behlalutya izigqibo zakutshanje, baya beya besiya besiya besiya besiya ku- Oyez ukwenzela ukushwankathelwa kwetyala elibanzi kunye nokushicilelwe kwengxoxo, kunye SCOUSFUSlog[ ukujongwa kolwazi olungobungcaphephe lokulinda kunye namatyala agqibekileyo. Ezi zixhobo zinika uluvo olubalulekileyo ekuqiqesheni nasekuqululeni kwenkundla.

Imibandela Yomthetho womGaqo-siseko waseMerika Ngexesha Elizayo

Ingcaciso yakutshanje yezigqibo zeNkundla Ephakamileyo icebisa inkqubela-phambili eninzi enokwenzeka kwikamva lamalungelo omgaqo-siseko. Okokuqala, uninzi lweNkundla oludla ngokungaguqukiyo lungaqhubeka lumisela okanye lugibande amalungelo angacaciswanga ngokucacileyo kumbhalo womGaqo-siseko. Umthetho Clarence Thomas, umzekelo, ubize ukuphinda uhlolo lwe-Obergefell v. , , [iiiiindawo engenakubalwanelo]. [iii-Calgnome], kunye ne-[FLT].Connecticut [FF:5] [FLT] [5] (ekukhuselwe ukuvingcamla okunene kokuthintela). Ngeliyokuninzi lweNkunga yeNkurhobo, iimbono ezitheneyo ezitheth.

Okwesibini, indlela yeNkundla yamaLungelo eFree Emplified Claus of the First Amendment ingaqhubeka yandisa ukhuseleko lwenkululeko yonqulo, mhlawumbi ngamaxabiso amanye amalungelo. Ityala elifana . Amaqumrhu angamakhasitinding

Okwesithathu, izigqibo zeNkundla ezingomthetho wolawulo zingasibuyisela isimilo somgaqo-siseko ngendlela echaphazela amalungelo omgaqo-siseko. Ngokumisela amandla amaqumrhu karhulumente okuchaza imimiselo ecacileyo, iNkundla inokwenza kube nzima ngakumbi ukunyanzelisa ukukhuselwa kwabathengi, abasebenzi, kunye nemekobume. Ezi zigqibo zesakhiwo zisenokuba nempembelelo engangqalanga kodwa ebalulekileyo ekunandipheni amalungelo omGaqo-siseko.

Umgaqo-siseko wesizwe ungabaluleka ngakumbi njengendawo zokukhusela amalungelo angasanikezelwa ngumGaqo-siseko wezwe. Emva , iinkundla ezininzi zelizwe zitolike umgaqo-siseko wazo ophezulu ukukhusela amalungelo okuqhomfa, kwaye imigudu efanayo ingaphantsi kwezinye iindawo. Lo mGaqo-siseko womgangatho wesizwe unika ukuhla okunokwenzeka ekuzinziseni kokhuseleko lwamazwe, nangona unyusa imibuzo engokungalinganiyo kwelizwe ekunandiphekeni kwamalungelo.

Abo bafuna ukuqonda iziseko zomthetho-siseko waseMelika, oovimba abafana neZiko lomGaqo-siseko wesizwe banikela izixhobo zokunxibelelana kunye nenkcazo yolwazi. Ukongeza, igama leNkundla ePhakamileyo elikhoyo[ lithembisa ukuphendula uludwe lwemiba eza kubumba amalungelo amaMelika kangangamashumi eminyaka ezayo.

Isiphelo: Indaleko Eqhubekayo Yamalungelo

Indaleko yamalungelo omgaqo-siseko eUnited States yinkqubo eqhubekayo, ebunjwe yinkqubo yokusetyenziswa kwengcaciso yezomthetho, imibutho yentlalo, iinguqulelo zezobupolitika, kunye nomongo wembali. Izigqibo zakutshanje zeNkundla Ephakamileyo ezihlolisileyo zibonisa omabini amalungelo e-dynam kunye nokungabinakwa kwamalungelo omgaqo-siseko. Oberge kunye [FLT] ne [FLT] BHOC] ezixhaswe yiLT [FF:] kuphela [FTT], ezibonisa amashumi eminyaka e-andleko amanani e-awudityayo kunye nemithetho etshintshayo.[FLT] [iift] epheleleyo, eyaziwa ngokusetyenziswa kwe-FFFFFT], ngokwe-egg. [5]

Ezi zigqibo zisikhumbuza ukuba amalungelo omgaqo-siseko akazinqumlisi. Zifuna ukuphaphamela, ukukhuthaza, nokuvuma ukubandakanyeka kwiinkqubo zomthetho nezezobupolitika ezilawula intsingiselo yabo. Iingxoxo zeNkundla, njengoko zinjalo iingxoxo ezinikelwa ngabaxhasi kunye nentsebenziswano ezibaxhasayo. Kubemi, ukuqonda inkqubo emele ukuba amalungelo aguquke ngayo kubalulekile ukuze bathathe inxaxheba kwiprojekthi eqhubekayo yedemokhrasi ye-grade.

Ikamva lamalungelo omGaqo-siseko liya kuxhomekeka kwizinto ezininzi: iziphumo zonyulo, ukumiswa kwabagwebi, iindlela zemibutho yokulawula, nokuvuma kwabantu abaqhelekileyo ukulungiselela nokufuna utshintsho. UmGaqo-siseko waseUnited States, njengoko iJaji uOrvery Wendell Holmes yakha yaphawula, "yenzelwe abantu abaneembono ezahlukeneyo ngokusisiseko" njengokuba iimbono ziqhubeka ziguquka, ngokunjalo nentsingiselo nomlinganiselo wamalungelo akhuselayo.

Ukufunda Okungakumbi Noovimba

Kubantu abafuna ukufunda le mibandela ixutyushwe ngokunzulu kweli nqaku, ezi zinto zilandelayo zinikela imbono eluncedo:

  • [[FLT: 0] Izincwadi: Erwin Chemernsky, Umthetho: Imigaqo kunye nePolitiki (Iincwadi zeKluwer, 7th. 2022]; Jeffrey Rosen, [[FL:] Inkundla Ephakamileyo: IiNkantolo Ezizimeleyo neRivaleties Echaza UMelika [] (Iiiiincwadi, 2007); Linda Greenhouse, [FL:] [FL:]] AbarseBreth: ngaphakathi kweNkuvokomkhulu [FFLT] [FL: 7,5]], Nyunyum-NUM]
  • [[FLT: 0] Inqaku elikwi Actives: Impinda yoMthetho ne iMitetho yoMthetho [[[FLT:]] rhoqo ipapasha uhlolo lwezigqibo zeNkundla ePhakamileyo, zombini ezikhoyo nembali. Imibandela yakutshanje ibonise ungxubeko olubanzi Dobs , [FLT:], [FLT:][FLT:] [5]] ipapaza [FL:], [FLT], [FL:]
  • Kwizibonelelo eziPhambili zeNkundla ePhakamileyo:[ Iprojekthi inika ushicilelo lwesandi kunye nerekhodi zempikiswano zeNkundla ePhakamileyo; inikeza ugcino lwezimvo zeNkundla ePhakamileyo olutyibilikayo, ulwazi olutyibilikayo, kunye namaxwebhu; ne-[FLT] Coll Information Information Information yolwazi yeNkundla inika uphando olufanelekileyo lwezimfaneleyono lwezingolo oluphezulu kunye neengxelo ezingachananga.