Ukwazisa: Ilitye Lenkululeko Yomntu Ngamnye

Ingcamango yenkqubo efanelekileyo imele njengenye yezona ndlela zihlala zihleli kwaye zibalulekile ekukhuseleni izenzo zoburhulumente zobudemokhrasi. Ngumgaqo osemthethweni ofuna ukuba urhulumente ahlonele onke amalungelo asemthethweni anikwe umntu, eqinisekisa ukuba akukho mntu uhluthwa ubomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla engenawo amandla afanelekileyo asemthethweni. Kubafundisi, abafundi, iingcali zezomthetho, kunye nabemi abathembileyo, ukuqonda indlela esebenzayo elungele ukulungelelanisa amandla phakathi korhulumente nomntu ngamnye. Ngaphandle kwendlela efanelekileyo, igunya likarhulumente liyathintelwa, kwaye amalungelo abantu ngabanye ngaphandle kwempembelelo yezobupolitika okanye yentlalo. Kukho ukuchatshazelwa kwamalungu asekuhlaleni. Kungenxa yoko kufunwa kwabo basemagunye abantu abanegunya. Kungenxa yoko, kuyimfuneko ukulawulwa kwemigaqo yomthetho; kuyimfuneko nokuzibophelela ngokomthetho, kwaye kulawulwa kumthetho.

Ukukhusela ukusetyenziswa kwala mazwi kusetyenziswa ngokusemthethweni kwiNkxaso-siseko ye-United States ngoMgaqo-siseko wesihlanu noweshumi elinesine, othi ngokucacileyo anqande urhulumente ukuba ahluze nabani na ophilayo, inkululeko, okanye impahla ngaphandle kwenkqubo efanelekileyo yomthetho. Kodwa intsingiselo kunye nokusetyenziswa kwala mazwi kuye kwaxutyushwa, kwahlulwa, kwaza kwandiswa ukutyhubela iinkulungwane zokutyhilwa okusemthethweni. Eli nqaku linikela uhlolisiso olubanzi lwenkqubo efunekayo, ukulandelela iingcambutho zalo zembali, ukuchaza iindidi ezimbini eziphambili zobomi, intelekelelo-mfono kunye nenkqubo engaphantsi kwendlela yolawulo, kunye nendlela iinkundla eziqhubeka ngayo zisebenzisa le migaqo-mthetho ezilawulayo.

Isiseko Sembali Senkqubo Efanele Iqhutywe

IMagna Carta Nesithethe Somthetho Oqhelekileyo WesiNgesi

Imvelaphi yenkqubo efunekayo ingalandelwa emva konyaka wewaka linamakhulu ali-1215, xa amaNgesi anyanzelisa uKumkani uJohn ukuba atyikitye iMagna Carta eRunnymede. Ngoxa iMagna Carta idla ngokuthatyathwa njengesivumelwano soxolo phakathi kokumkani nezikhulu zakhe ezinemvukelo. Kodwa ke, yayinelungiselelo eliya kuphinda livakalise ukukhula okusemthethweni kwiinkulungwane: Isahluko 39 savakalisa ukuba "Akukho mntu okhululekileyo oza kuthinjwa okanye abhaqwe, okanye ahlulwe amalungelo akhe okanye izinto zakhe, okanye abhangiswe okanye angabikho mthethweni, okanye angabikho kwicala lakhe nayiphi nayiphi na indlela, okanye siqhubekeke sinyanzele ngako, okanye sithumele abanye ukuba benze njalo, ngaphandle komgwebo osemthethweni wokulingana naye okanye umthetho welizwe lakhe okanye umthetho. Eli binzana "lixesha lanamhlanje lalo liba lingumthetho"

IMagna Carta yaphinda yaphinda yaqinisekiswa kaninzi ukutyhubela inkulungwane yeshumi elinesithathu neyeshumi elinesine, kwaye imigaqo yayo yangenelwa ngokuthe ngcembe kwisithethe somthetho wamaNgesi. Ibinzana elithi "ukuqalisa inkqubo yomthetho" laqala ukuvela kumthetho ongu-1354, owathi wanika ukuba "akukho mntu welizwe okanye imeko efunekayo, oya kususwa kumazwe akhe okanye kwimiqathango, okanye athathwe, okanye afakwe entolongweni, okanye ahlulwe, okanye abulawe, ngaphandle kokuziphendulela kwinkqubo yomthetho efanelekileyo." Le ndlela yacacisa ukuba "akukho mntu womthetho welizwe" ofunekayo phambi kokuba imeko ifuneke umntu ahluthwe amalungelo akhe. Ngexesha elithile, iinkundla zezomthetho zesiNgesi ziphuhliswe, okanye zikhutshelwe iimfuno ezithile, okanye zisiwe, okanye zisiwe kwisaziso sokunene, ukuva, ukumangalelwa, ukubekwa kweliso kwasekunene, ukuva ityala, ukumangalelwa kwetyala.

Ubuthanga Nophuhliso Lwexesha Lendaleko

AmaNgesi athathi nxaxheba kumthetho oqhelekileyo ukuya nawo kuMntla Merika, kwaye ingcamango yenkqubo efanelekileyo yagxininiswa ngokunzulu kwingqiqo esemthethweni yamathanga aseMelika. Iirhafti zobu koloni kunye nomgaqo-siseko wangaphambili worhulumente ngokufuthi waquka isiqinisekiso sokuba akukho mntu unokuhluthwa ubomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla ngaphandle komthetho welizwe. Amava okulawula kweBritane eekoloni emfazwe ekhokelela kwiNguqu zaseMelika, nokokuba, abonisa indlela elula ngayo ukuchaswa kwezi rhafuno zerhafu ngaphandle komelo lwamakoloni, ukusetyenziswa kwemithetho-orhulumente yaseBritani evumela abaphathi-mikhosi ukuba bakhangele naliphi na ikhaya ngaphandle kosizathu, kunye nokugxotha iimvavanyo zabagwebi kwiimeko ezithile ezijongeneepoliti zoburhulumente.

Isibhengezo senkululeko sazidwelisa ngokucacileyo ezi zityholo nxamnye noKumkani uGeorge III, kuquka "ukusinika iziphumo ezininzi zokulingwa nguJury" kunye "ukusiguqula ngaphaya kolwandle siza kuvavanywa ukuba sifanekiswe ukuphambana." Oku kusetyenziswa kakubi kwakungeyonto nje engaziwayo yokwaphula umthetho; zazingamava acacileyo amandla awenyanileyo awathi aguqula ukuzimisela kwabalawuli ukudala urhulumente onyanzelwe ngumthetho. Xa umGaqo-siseko wawubhaliwe ngo1787, noko ke, wawungabanga namalungelo. Oku kusibe sisiphelo esikhulu sokuphikisana ngexesha lengxoxo, nto leyo yakhokelela kwisithembiso sokuba isibhengezo samalungelo ekwaya kongezelelwa njengomyalelo wokuqala wezoshishino phantsi korhulumente omtsha.

IsiHlayiso Sesihlanu Neseshumi Eline

IsiHlaliso sesihlanu, esivunywe njengenxalenye yeBhili yamaLungelo ngo-1791, sinikela ngokucacileyo ukuba "Akukho mntu uya... kuhluthwa ubomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla, ngaphandle kwenkqubo efanelekileyo yomthetho." Eli lungiselelo lalisebenza kurhulumente wesizwe kuphela, libonakalisa inkolelo yabasebenzi be-fream, yokuba isisongelo esiphambili senkululeko yomntu ngamnye sasivela kurhulumente wesizwe kunokuba kumazwe. Kwinkulungwane yeshumi elinesithoba, uMsebenzi we-Act Classiale weSinyulo seFindfull wahlala phantsi kwemithetho ephantsi kwemiqatha, ngokwenxenye ngenxa yokuba imisebenzi karhulumente worhulumente wasekuhlaleni yayilinganiselwe kumazwe.

Ukuhlaziywa koMphetho-mda weshumi elinesine ngo1868, emva kweMfazwe yamakhaya, kwaguqula ngokuphawulekayo indlela ebekwe ngayo umthetho ofanelekileyo. ICandelo 1 lolungiso linika ukuba "Akukho Rhulumente iya kwenza okanye inyanzelisa nawuphi na umthetho oya kuvala amalungelo okanye ukugonyelwa kwabemi base-United States; kwaye akukho naliphi na iLizwe elingamhluthanga nabani na umntu, inkululeko, okanye impahla, ngaphandle kwenkqubo efanelekileyo yomthetho; okanye likhanyele nakuwuphi na umntu ekulawuleni kwalo ukhuseleko olulinganayo lwemithetho." Olu lwimi lwandisa imfuneko yesizwe ekufuneka imisele oorhulumente, ivelise umgangatho wokungaguquguqu kwesizwe wobubulungisa obuya kuba yisiseko socelomngeni olungenakulinganiswa ngumthetho lwesenzo somthetho.

Ingcaciso yeSindululo se 14 se-Adry Procession Claus ye-Advect ye-14 ibingumbandela wengxoxo enkulu kuyo yonke imbali yaseMerika. Abanye abaphengululi nabagwebi baye baphikisa ngelithi yayikukukhuseleko oluyintloko lwamakhoboka asandul' ukukhululwa kwimithetho karhulumente ekwahluleni ulawulo, ngoxa abanye beyibonile njengemithetho ebanzi yamalungelo omntu ngamnye equka ukukhuselwa kwamalungelo amaLungelo kumazwe. Inkundla ePhakamileyo ekugqibeleni yamkela imbono yale mfundiso yokusetyenziswa kweBhili-Rhosa yamaLungelo kurhulumente ngomthetho kaClauskie woMmiselo we-1455.

Iintsika Ezimbini Zenkqubo Elindelekileyo

Inkqubo elindelekileyo: Ubulungisa kwisigqibo soRhulumente

Inkqubo efunekayo yenkqubo efunekayo ingumba wenkqubo ekufuneka ihlonishwe ngurhulumente phambi kokuba ahluthe umntu wobomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla. Kukuko okusesikweni kwinkqubo yokwenza izigqibo zikarhulumente, kuqinisekisa ukuba abantu bafumana isaziso esaneleyo kunye nethuba lokuviwa ngaphambi kokuba urhulumente enze isenzo esiphazamisa izilangazelelo zabo. Umbuzo ongundoqo kuyo nayiphi na inkqubo efunekayo ngu: Yiyiphi inkqubo efanelekileyo? Impendulo ixhomekeke kwindlela engokwemvelo yenzala exhotyiswe kwibhodi, umngcipheko wokuswelwa kwempazamo phantsi kwemigaqo ekhoyo, nomdla karhulumente kwimicimbi esebenzayo.

Ukuphawula Neemfuneko Zokuva

Inkqubo yokuveza intsingiselo encinane, kufuneka urhulumente anike abantu isaziso esinentsingiselo sezenzo ezicetyiweyo kunye nethuba lokunikela imeko yabo phambi koMenzi wesigqibo ongakhethi buso. Isaziso kufuneka siqwalaselwe ngokufanelekileyo ukwazisa umntu ochaphazelekayo ngesenzo esingaphambili kunye nezizathu ekusekelwe kuzo, kubanika ithuba elifanelekileyo lokuphendula. Ukuva makuqhutywe ngexesha elinentsingiselo nangendlela enentsingiselo, ukunika umntu lowo ithuba lokunikela ubungqina obukhoyo, amangqina anqamlezileyo, kwaye enze iimpikiswano ezingokwasemthethweni.

Ezi mfuneko aziphelelanga kwaye azisebenzi ngendlela efanayo kwisenzo ngasinye sikarhulumente. Inkundla ePhakamileyo iqaphele ukuba inkqubo efanelekileyo ithambile kwaye ifuna ukhuseleko lwengcaciso njengoko imeko ifuna. Kwezinye iimeko, ukuva okupheleleyo kohlobo lokuvavanya kusenokufuneka, ngoxa kwezinye, uhlolo lokulawula olungacwangciswanga lungane. Isitshixo sikukuba iinkqubo mazinikwe ngokusesikweni indalo yezilangazelelo ezibandakanyekileyo neemeko zetyala.

Uvavanyo lweMathews v. Eldridge Ukulinganisa

Isakhiwo sangoku sokuqwalasela inkqubo efunekayo yokulungisa iprocedturac processic zimiselwe kumzekelo wesiphawuli wewaka lika 1976 . UMasipala weNkundla ePhakamileyo uchaza uvavanyo oluzinxenye ezintathu. INkundla yaqinisekisa ukuba yiyiphi inkqubo efunekayo efuna ukuqwalaselwa kweemeko ezintathu: okokuqala, umdla wobuqu oza kuchaphazeleka ngesenzo esisemthethweni; okwesibini, ubungozi bokuncitshiswa kweso sizathu ngenkqubo esetyenzisiweyo, nexabiso elifanelekileyo lokufumana iprocedrumentations zoncedo ezongezelelweyo okanye ezongezelelweyo; kunye nelesithathu, umdla karhulumente, kuquka intlukwano yemiqathango yezolawulo, kunye nemithwalo eyongezelelweyo.

Uvavanyo olufanelekileyo luye lwasetyenziswa kwimo eninzi elungeleleneyo yomongo, ekungenelweni kwentlalo-ntle ekupheliseni ukukhubazeka kweziphumo zesiphene zamabanjwa. Lubonisa indlela elula kwinkqubo efunekayo ebonakalisa imfuneko yokulungelelanisa amalungelo omntu ngamnye nemeko esebenzayo yolawulo lukarhulumente. Ngelixesha uvavanyo lugxekwe ngabanye abaphengululi ngokunika ubunzima obukhulu kakhulu kwimpumelelo karhulumente, luhlala luyinkqubo ephambili yokuhlalutya okufanelekileyo kwinkqubo yeprocracture elungelelanisa iinkundla zolawulo lorhulumente.

Inkqubo Engagqibekanga Efunekayo: Ukukhusela Amalungelo Asisiseko

Inkqubo efunekayo esezantsi yeyomthetho ithanda ukuphikisana kodwa ibaluleke ngokulinganayo kwinkalo yenkqubo efunekayo yemfundiso. Ngokungafaniyo nenkqubo efunekayo, egxininisa kubulungisa beenkqubo ezisetyenziswa ngurhulumente, inkqubo encinci efunekayo ihlola ukhuthazo lomthetho ngokwawo, ibuza ukuba urhulumente unobulungisa obaneleyo kusini na bokungena kwimimandla ethile yenkululeko. Ikhusela amalungelo athile angundoqo kwimpatho karhulumente, kwanaxa urhulumente elandela iinkqubo ezifanelekileyo.

Amalungelo Asisiseko Nophando Olungqongqo

INkundla ePhakamileyo ibambelele kwelokuba amalungelo athile asekelwe ngokunzulu kwimbali nezithethe zesizwe, okanye abaluleke kakhulu kwingcamango yenkululeko yoomatiloshe, kangangokuba afanelwe lukhuseleko olukhethekileyo phantsi kwe-Gast Procession Claus. La malungelo asisiseko aquka, phakathi kwamanye, ilungelo lokutshata, ilungelo lokumisela, ilungelo lokukhokelwa kwabantwana bomntu, ilungelo lokumisela ingqibelelo yomzimba, kwanokunelungelo lokwenza izigqibo ezithile zobuqu ezinzulu. Xa umthetho uchasene nokulungileyo okungundoqo, iinkundla zisebenzisa ukujonga ngokungqongqo, okufuna urhulumente abonise ukuba umthetho usebenza nomdla onyanzelekileyo kwaye ulungele umgangatho ofanelekileyo wokufikelela loo mdlalelo.

Imfundiso yenkqubo efunekayo yokuzithethelela ibingumbandela wempikiswano enzulu kuyo yonke imbali yaseMerika, yaye abagxeki bathi inika abagwebi ingqiqo enkulu ukuwisa imithetho emiselwe ngokwedemokhrasi esekelwe kwimilinganiselo yabo yobuqu. Abaxhasi baphendula ngokuthi inkqubo efunekayo yokuzikhusela kwinkululeko yomntu ngamnye kubuzwilakhe obuphambili nokuba iinkundla zinendima esemthethweni ekuboneni nasekuqinisekiseni imilinganiselo esisiseko efakwe kumGaqo-siseko.

Imfundiso Yokwahlukana

Enye yeenkqubo ezibaluleke kakhulu zenkqubo efunekayo yokuzibandakanya, ephethe ukuba i-Active Processom Claus ye-14th Amendment "incorporate" amalungiselelo athile eBhili yamaLungelo kwaye iwenza asebenze kurhulumente. Kungcelele lweemeko ezigqibelwe kakhulu phakathi koo1920 kunye nowe-1960, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yasebenzisa iziqinisekiso ezithe ngqo zeBhili yamaLungelo "iiinkokeli" ukuquka ukhuseleko loMbetho wokuqala wentetho nonqulo, umgaqo weSine woMphembelelo ekuphengululweni okungekho ngqiqweqwele, kunye nokukhubeka kweSithandathu kokungaqiqeki, kunye nokuLamla okuQhubela-Gqizeli kweSithandathu.

INkundla yala impikiswano yokuba amalungelo okanye amaImmunite Claus eMpanzi weshumi elinesine waba sisithuthi sokubandakanya, endaweni yoko ixhomekeke kwiSicwangciso sikaClaus njengomthombo wokhuseleko. INkundla kwakhona yala ukuma kweBhili yamaLungelo kufuneka isetyenziswe kumazwe onke, eyaziwa njengendawo epheleleyo, exhasa ukuqulunqwa kwamalungelo akhethekileyo okusebenza nelungelo ngalinye elisekelwe kuphawu lwayo olusisiseko. Ekupheleni kwenkulungwane yamashumi amabini, phantse onke amalungiselelo eBhili lamaLungelo aye afakwa kumazwe onke, esaziwa njengendawo yomgangatho wolawulo lwesizwe ngamnye onelungelo elisebenza ngokohlobo lwawo.

Ityala Eliphakamileyo Lenkundla

IiNtloko eziPhambili zeNkqubo

Kelly (1970)

Goldberg v. Kelly, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yathi iNkundla ePhakamileyo ifuna ukuchongwa okucacileyo phambi komamkeli isenokupheliswa kwiinzuzo zentlalo-ntle. Ityala lavela xa isiXeko saseNew York sizama ukuphelisa iingenelo zentlalo zabamkeli abaninzi ngaphandle kokubanika ithuba lokunikela ubungqina okanye ukubhenela kumangqina phambi komenzi wesigqibo ongakhethi. Inkundla yaqiqabela ukuba inzuzo yentlalo ingulo ingumthetho ofanelekela abo bafanelekileyo, kwaye ukuphelisa ezo nzuzo kukuthi abantu bahluthe inzala yempahla ekhuselwe yi-Creast Claus Claus.

IJaji Brennan, ebhalela uninzi, yagxininisa ukuba iingenelo zentlalo-ntle asilohlobo lokunikela uncedo kodwa ngumbandela wokumisela ilungelo labamkeli abafanelekayo. INkundla yathi kufuneka inkqubela-phambili efunekayo yokuphulaphula umthetho ngaphambi kwexesha equka ithuba lokunikela ubungqina, ukudibana nokunqumla amangqina, nokuze kuboniswe ngesiluleko. Eli tyala laphawula ukwanda okuphawulekayo kwenkqubo yokuzikhusela ekumeleni inzuzo yeenkqubo zikarhulumente kwaye laseka umgaqo wokuba urhulumente akanakushwankathela abantu ngabanye ngokomsholo ofanelekileyo ngaphandle kokunikela imigaqo eluncedo.

Mathews v. Eldridge (1976)

Njengoko kuchazwe ngasentla, iMathews v. IEldridge yaseka uvavanyo oluzinxenye ezintathu lokulinganisela olusetyenziswa ziinkundla ukufumanisa ukuba zeziphi iinkqubo ezifunekayo yi-Curreate Doctory Claus. Ityala libandakanya ucelomngeni kwiinkqubo ezisetyenziswa yiNtlalo yoKhuselo lweziphene kwiinzuzo zokuphelisa ubulwelwe. Ngokungafaniyo neengenelo zentlalo kwi [[FLT:] Goldberg v. Kelly, iziphumo zesiphene zapheliswa ngokwe siseko sobungqina bezamayeza obunokuqwalaselwa ngokulula ukuthobela okubhaliweyo kunokufumana ubungqina obuphilayo.

INkundla yakholelwa ukuba iinkqubo ezisetyenziswa yiNtlalo-ntle yoKhuseleko-ntle (iquka isaziso sokuphelisa okucetyisiweyo, ithuba lokunikezela ubungqina obubhaliweyo bezonyango, nelungelo lokuphinda uphinde ujonge phambi komgwebi womthetho olawulayo (*) uzalisekise iimfuno zenkqubo efunekayo. INkundla yahlulayo Goldberg v. Kelly] kwizicwangciso zokuba ukuzimisela kwesiphene kusekelwe kubungqina obuzinjongo zezamayeza kunokuba kuxhomekeke kwiziphumo zobugocigo, ukunciphisa ubungozi bokungaphulwa ngempazamo. Amathes uvavanyo luye lwaba ngumgangatho wenkqubo yeproccums elungele uhlaluko lwe-ombutho.

Miranda v. Arizona (1966)

. UMenda v. Arizona, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yamisa imfuneko yokuba amapolisa azise abantu ngabanye ngamalungelo awo asemthethweni phambi kokuqhuba uncinwa kwelungelo lokugunyaziswa. Eli tyala lalibandakanya u Ernesto Miranda, owagwetywa ngokuqweqwediswa nokudlwengulwa okusekelwe ekuvumeni izono emva kokuba amapolisa emncinisile ngaphandle kokumxelela ilungelo lakhe lokuhlala ethe cwaka okanye ilungelo lakhe lokucebisa. Inkundla yathi ilungelo loMbenzo wesihlanu nxamnye nomthetho wokuzilungisa lifuna ukuba kunikelwe izilumkiso ezikhethekileyo kubantu ngabanye kwintolongo ngaphambi kokuncinwa.

Isigqibo seNkundla sasisekelwe ekuqapheleni ukuba ukuncinwa kwetyala ngokusemthethweni kuxhomekeke ekuphathweni kweso sizathu kwaye abarhanelwayo abasenokungawaqondi amalungelo abo omgaqo-siseko. IMiranda ilumkisa ngokuquka ilungelo lokuhlala buthule, ilungelo lokucebisa, kunye nesilumkiso sokuba nantoni na erhanelwayo ethethayo isenokusetyenziswa ngokuchasene nazo enkundleni yenkundla, kwaye iye yaba yenye yezikhuseli ezigqalwa ngokubanzi ezithe zamkeleka kakhulu kumthetho waseMelika. Ityala ligxininisa umgaqo othi inkqubo efunekayo kufuneka amagosa karhulumente athathe amanyathelo okuvuma amalungelo omgaqo-siseko, ingakumbi kumongomongo apho abantu bengenakuwaqonda oko kuyimfuneko.

Iincopho ezisezantsi zenkqubela

Intambo--ebroyi (engowe1903) kunye neDobbs v. Jackson Women’s Health (2022)

. Roe v. Ukwalathisa kumi njengenye yezona nkqubo zibalulekileyo neziyimpikiswano zenkqubo ezifunekayo ezibalulekileyo zembali yaseMelika. Inkundla yabambelela kwisigqibo sokuba i-Celassias ye-Century yeSimezo se-145th Amendment ikhusela ilungelo lomfazi lokukhetha ukuphelisa ukukhulelwa, ukufumana ukuba eli lungelo likwindawo yobuqu ne-compustism. IJaji Blackmun yaqonda ukuba ilungelo lokuba yimfihlo, nangona lingakhankanywwanga ngokucacileyo kumGaqo-siseko, likhuselwa yi-Ceclaus Processss njengenzala yenkululeko engundoqo.

Phantse iminyaka engamashumi amahlanu kamva, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yalawula i-Roe v. Wade ku-[FLT]] Dobs v. Jackson Amabhinqa 'Arty Organization' [ [2022]], iphethe ukuba uMgaqo-siseko awufaki lungelo wokuqhomfa. Umthetho Alito uluvo lwama ukuba ilungelo lokuqhomfa alisekelwenga kwimbali nakumasiko esizwe nokuba igunya lokulawula ukuqhomfa kufuneka libuyiselwe kubantu nabameli babo abanyuliweyo. Ityala limele ukutshintsha okubalulekileyo kwinkqubo efunekayo ephantsi kwe-jurisprudence kwaye lilawule impikiswano yendlela yenkqulo yezomthetho-mthetho-mthetho-mthetho-mthetho kufuneka isetyenziswe phantsi kwemithetho yeBhunga-oply Creans (isy).

Obergefell v. Hodges (2015)

[[NKQUBO:0] uluvo lukaKennedy lwagxininisa ukuba ilungelo lokutshata liyindawo esisiseko ekhuselwe yi-Unit Programme Claus , iNkundla ePhakamileyo ibambelele kwelokuba i-"Seast Procession" kunye noKhuselo lwe-Claus elungele ukudibana kwe-145th Amend Amend Amend Amend Amendment" lufuna ukuba kuqwalaselwe umtshato ofanayo. Inkundla iqikelelo lokuba ilungelo lokutshata lisekelwe kakhulu kwimbali nakwizithethe zohlanga, kwaye ukukhulula izibini eziphakathi ezithe zahlukeneyo emtshatweni kuyazikhathaza isidima ne-Explot (iths).

Esi sigqibo sasiluloyiso olubalaseleyo lwamalungelo e-LGBTQ kwaye samela ulwandiso olubalulekileyo lwenkqubo efunekayo yokukhusela. INkundla yasebenzisa izicwangciso ezisisiseko zamalungelo amiselweyo kwiimeko zangaphambili, ikholelwa ukuba ilungelo lokutshata lingumdla osisiseko ongenakulaliswa kwizibini ezikwi-sexeni ezingenamdla wemo yegunya.

Washington v. Glucksberg (1997)

[[NTLT:0] Jashington v. Glucksberg, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yachaza isiseko sale nkundla sokuchaza amalungelo asisiseko phantsi kwe-"Claus]. Ityala libandakanya ucelomngeni kurhulumente waseWashington lokungavunyelwa kogqirha-kuzibulala, kunye nesalatha-mthetho siphikisa ukuba iNkqubo ka Claus ekwimeko ecwangcisiweyo ikhusela umntu ogulayo ekunene ukuphelisa ubomi bakhe ngoncedo lwezamayeza. Inkundla yalandula le ngxoxo, ibambe ukuba uthe nelungelo lokunceda ukuzibulala aliyo isosiso sinzala esingundoqo esikhuselwe yi-RClassial Claus Claus.

Uluvo lukaMasipala omkhulu uRehnquist lumisela uvavanyo oluziinxalenye ezimbini olwahlula amalungelo asisiseko: okokuqala, iinkundla kufuneka zichaze olujoliswe kwinqanaba elifanelekileyo lobundlobongela, zivavanya imbali yohlanga, izithethe zomthetho, kunye nemisebenzi; okwesibini, iinkundla kufuneka zimisele enoba ilungelo lisekelwe ngokunzulu kwimbali nezithethe ezingundoqo zohlanga kwaye zicace kwingcamango yenkululeko eyayalelweyo. [[FLT: 0]] Glucksberg[ isiseko sesiseko sigxininisa ukuthintelwa nokuthotyelelwa kwiinkqubo zedemokhrasi, ifuna uhlalutyo olulukileyo lwembali phambi kokuba kuqwalaselwe amalungelo amatsha angundoqo phantsi kwenkqubo kaCreast Claus.

INkqubo eBekelwayo kuLawulo noLawulo

Iinkqubo zokukhusela ezifanelekileyo azipheleliselwanga kwiimvavanyo zolwaphulo-mthetho kunye nokubekwa kwetyala kwamakhaya; zikwasebenza kummandla omkhulu nowandayo womthetho wolawulo. Amasebe karhulumente kurhulumente, urhulumente, kunye nemigangatho yasekuhlaleni enza izigqibo ezingenakubalwa ezichaphazela ubomi babantu, inkululeko, kunye neemfuno zempahla, kuquka izigqibo ezimalunga nokubekwa kwemiqathango, iingenelo, imvume, kunye nokuthotyelwa komthetho. I-Adminitive Procedure Act (A) yowe-1946) yamisa isiseko esibanzi sokwenza izigqibo zolawulo, ifuna isaziso kunye nokuphendula iinkqubo zolawulo kunye nokulungiselela ukuhlolisingeniswa kwemibutho.

Kumongo wolawulo, inkqubo efunekayo ifuna ukuba abameli banikezele abantu ngesaziso esaneleyo sezenzo ezicetyiweyo, ithuba lokunika ubungqina kunye neengxoxo, kunye nengcaciso eqiqayo yezigqibo zokugqibela. Iinkqubo ezithile ezifunekayo zixhomekeke kwisimo senzala exhotyisiweyo emthini nasekulinganiseni izinto ezicacileyo phantsi kwamangqina akhoyo aphikisanayo kunye nocawa. Ngokwahlukileyo, izigqibo eziphathelele iinzuzo zokhuseleko lwentlalo ezingephi zinokwenziwa ngokweemeko ezisisiseko. Umzekelo, iziphumo ze-i-inertenting, ezifana nezibandakanya imvume zezamayeza okanye amalayisensi, zifuna iindlebe ezicacileyo ezicacileyo kunye namangqina akhoyo aphikisanayo kunye nee-Atlantine.

Ukuvela kwamaqumrhu olawulo kuye kwadala imingeni emitsha kwinkqubo efanelekileyo yokulawula, njengoko amagunya enza iinkqubo ezidibanisa imithetho, isebe eliphetheyo, kunye nemicimbi yokugweba. INkundla ePhakamileyo iye yaqonda ukuba amaqumrhu anokuwamisela amalungelo abantu ngokweenkqubo zolawulo, ukuba anelise iimfuno ezisisiseko zenkqubo ekufuneka kwaye kukho uhlolo olunentsingiselo lwezigqibo. Ukumiswa komthetho wolawulo kunye nenkqubo efanelekileyo kuhlala kungummandla onamandla wokuphuhlisa umthetho, ingakumbi njengoko amaqumrhu exhomekeke kwimithetho-algority nakuqile ekwenzeni izigqibo ezichaphazela amalungelo abantu.

Inkqubela Efanelekileyo Kubulungisa Bezaphuli - mthetho

Inkqubo yomthetho elawulayo inikela eyona nkqubo ibalaseleyo nephezulu yokusetyenziswa kwemigaqo efunekayo. Xa urhulumente efuna ukuhlutha umntu wenkululeko (okanye, kwiimeko zelishwa, ubomi ) ngokutshutshiswa ngabaphuli-mthetho, ukukhuselwa ngokwesiko kwe-Grast Procesme Claus ephezulu. UmGaqo-siseko ufuna ukuba abamangalelwa bafumane uninzi lwezikhuseli zenkqubo ezifanelekileyo, kuquka ilungelo lokufumana ityala elikhawulezayo nelinobudlelane noluntu, ilungelo lokunikwa ityala elingakhethi-mthetho, ilungelo lokunikwa izityholo ezinxamnye nabo, ilungelo lokumangalelwa, ilungelo lokumelana nabo, ilungelo lokunyanzelela amangqina, ikhondo lokunyanzeleka ukufumana ukhuseleko kumangqina abo, kunye nelungelo lokunceda icebiso.

Ngapha koko, inkqubo efunekayo kwisaphuli-mthetho kufuneka inyanisekile kwihambo yonke yezaphuli-mthetho. INkundla Ephakamileyo iye yathi inkqubo efanelekileyo iyaphulwa xa urhulumente esebenzisa ubungqina obububuxoki ukuze afumane isiqinisekiso, xa icinezela ubungqina bokugweba obubonisa ukuba izinto zezokwenzakalisa okanye zohlwayo, okanye xa ibandakanyeka kwihambo eyothusayo. I-Servement Procesment Clause ikwafuna ukuba abamangalelwa benziwe bafaneleke ukuze bamelane, ukuba izicelo zetyala zibe zezokuzithandela, kwaye urhulumente angqine zonke iinkalo zetyala zizezokuzithandela, nokuba ungqine zonke izibakala zetyala ngaphandle kokuthandabuza okusengqiqweni.

Ukusetyenziswa kwenkqubo efanelekileyo kumatyala olwaphulo-mthetho kuye kwaguquka ngokuphawulekayo ekuhambeni kwexesha, kunye neNkundla yaseWarren ku 1960 ekwandiswa kwemiqathango yokhuseleko ekwandiswayo kubamangalelwa ngokwezigqibo zephawu eliyi- Gideon v. Wainwright [1963], eyamisa ilungelo lokucebisa abamangalelwa abagwebi abakwimeko ezintle, kunye Mpp v. [1961], eyasebenzisa umthetho owe-ekungagqibekanga kwimicimbi. Ezi zigqibo zabonisa ukuqwalaselwa kobucala okufanelekileyo kokuqinisekisa ukuthembeka kwemeko yolwaphulo-mthetho nokunqanda-mthetho, kunye nokunqanda urhulumente ekusebenziseni igunya lokuphatha ulawulo olungenatyala.

Imodeli elindelekileyo kulwimi lwangaphakathi

Imigaqo efunekayo iyasebenza nakulwazi olungokwasemthethweni, apho urhulumente ngenkundla yakhe acombulula iimpikiswano phakathi kwamaqela azimeleyo okanye phakathi kwamaqela angawabo okanye urhulumente. I-Gast Proce Claus ifuna ukuba abasemagunyeni bafumane isaziso esaneleyo sezenzo ezinxamnye nawo kunye nethuba elinentsingiselo lokuviwa phambi kwenkundla engakhethi-cala. Oku kuquka ilungelo lokunikela ubungqina, ukuphikisa iingcamango zomthetho, nokubhenela kwizigqibo ezingafanelekanga kwinkundla ephakamileyo.

INkundla ePhakamileyo iye yaqonda ukuba inkqubo efanelekileyo ayifuni umgangatho ofanayo wokukhuselwa kwabemi kumatyala afanayo njengakumatyala olwaphulo-mthetho, kodwa iimfuno ezisisiseko zesaziso kunye nethuba lokuviwa zisebenza ngamandla apheleleyo. Kwimeko yokulahlekelwa kwemiba yabemi, umzekelo, iNkundla ibonise ukuba inkqubo efanelekileyo ifuna ukuba abanini-mpahla bafumane isaziso esifike ngexesha elifanelekileyo kunye nethuba lokuncitshiswa kwempahla yabo phambi kokuba ithatyathwe ngokusisigxina ngurhulumente. Kumo wozibophelelo lwamakhaya, iNkundla ikholelwa ukuba inkqubo efanelekileyo ifuna ubungqina obucacileyo nebokwenene phambi kokuba umntu azinikele ngokungekho mthethweni kwiqumsho ongo.

Ukusetyenziswa kwenkqubo efanelekileyo kwiimeko zamakhaya kuphakamisa imibuzo ebalulekileyo ngokufikelela kubulungisa, ingakumbi kubantu abafumana imali ephantsi abasenokungakwazi ukufikelela umelo olusemthethweni. Ngoxa i-Celasis yeNkqubo kaCelas engafuni ukuba urhulumente anikele isiluleko kwiimeko zabemi, iNkundla ePhakamileyo iqaphele ukuba inkqubo efunekayo isenokufuna ukhuseleko olukhethekileyo kwiimeko apho amalungelo angundoqo asengozini yokunqandwa kwempazamo ingaphezulu kakhulu.

Iingxaki Zexesha Elizayo

Inkqubo yoKhuseleko lweSizwe kunye neNkqubo eBekiweyo

Mhlawumbi olunaluphi na ucelomngeni olubalulekileyo lwexesha linye lokuzama ukuzama ukuthomalalisa ukhuseleko lwesizwe. Ukuhlasela kwabanqolobi ngoSeptemba 11, 2001, kwabangela ukuba urhulumente wase-United States enze izinto ezininzi ezabangela ukuba kubekho inkxalabo enzulu efunekayo, kuquka ukuvalelwa kwabanqolobi eGuantanamo Bay, ukusetyenziswa komkhosi wokuzama ukuvalela ababanjwa, kunye nokungaqiniseki kokunxibelelana kwabantu baseUnited States nabantu ngabanye abaphesheya. Urhulumente waphikisa ngelithi imigaqo esesikweni yokukhusela imfazwe yehlabathi yayingeyonto okanye iyingozi kumongomo woloyiko, ngoxa abaxhasi benkululeko yabemi babephikisa ukuba ukupheliswa kwenkqubo efunekayo yayingenaziko ukusetyenziswa kwaye iziphumo.

INkundla ePhakamileyo yathetha ngeminye yezi mbambano kungcelele lwezigqibo ezingqina ukubaluleka kwenkqubo efunekayo kwanakwimeko yokhuseleko lwesizwe. HAmdi v. Rumsfeld [2004], iNkundla yathi abemi base-U.S. babambekile njengeenkqubo engundoqo yotshaba ukuba bakhuphisane ngokufanelekileyo ukukhuphisana nesiseko esiyinyaniso sokuvalelwa kwabo phambi koMenzi wesigqibo sobundili. [[FLT]] Boumetene v. [2003] [iK], iNkube inkundla ikholelwa ukuba abagxothweyo eGuantana Bay bafumane isiseko somthetho-mGwal-siseko soburhulumente, ukuchasa ingxulumo ekwayo ekwayo ekufuneka isetyenziswe ngokufanelekileyo, ngaphandle kwemeko entsha, kodwa ngaphandle kokusetyenziswa komthetho omthetho omtsha.

Inkqubo yobuxhakaxhaka, imfihlo kunye nenkqubo elindeleke ngamanani

Ukuhambela phambili ngokukhawuleza kobugcisa kuye kwadala ucelomngeni olutsha lwenkqubo efunekayo enokuba ngabasebenzi bomGaqo-siseko abangenakuyilindela. Unyuko lokuhlolwa kwamanani, ukuqokelelwa kogcino-lwazi, kunye nokwenza izigqibo zemithetho-algoriths kuphakamisa imibuzo esisiseko ngendlela efunekayo emalunga nendlela esetyenziswa ngayo ngexesha lamanani. Xa amasebe karhulumente eqokelela ugcino-lwazi lobuqu ngokhangelo lwezingcinga, imigodi yedata, okanye imigaqo enyanzelekileyo yokuzigcina ugcino-lwazi, ziziphi izikhuseli ezisebenzayo? Xa amanani esetyenziswa ukwenza izigqibo eziphathelene netyala, izindlu, okanye isigwebo solwaphulo-mthetho, ngamalungelo anokuwaphi abantu abamele bawaqonde baze bavavane ezo zigqibo?

INkundla ePhakamileyo iye yathabatha amanyathelo abalulekileyo okunyusa ukhuseleko olufanelekileyo kummandla wamanani, ingakumbi kumongo wophendlo lwesi-5 lokuLandlisiweyo kunye nomthetho wokuxhuzula. Riley v. California [2014] [iNkundla, ibambelele kwelokuba amapolisa awanakuphengulula okuqulethwe yicell phone ngaphandle kwemvume, iqonda ukuba iicell phone zalettene ziqulethe ubuninzi bolwazi lobuqu oluneeenjongo engundoqo. Carplateb v. United[FLT:] (20) [20]), iNkundlana inkundla ikholelwa ukuba ukufunyanwa kweseli yembali ye-opyldertive ingenisa ulwazi olufuna ukuphelwa kwe-Dijini, ukugatya kwe-yesithathu kwe-okstmercet, igalelo ye-art evumela ukuba i-egortmentation i-efactives.

Ezi meko zimela amanyathelo abalulekileyo ekukhuseleni inkqubo efunekayo ngexesha lamanani, kodwa kusekho imingeni ebalulekileyo. Ukusetyenziswa kwemithetho-manani eqikelelwayo ekugwetyweni kwezaphuli-mthetho, umzekelo, kunyusa inkxalabo ngokubonakala, ukuphendula, kunye nokucalucalula into yokuba iinkqubo ezifanelekileyo zesithethe zisenokungabhekisi ngqo ngokupheleleyo. Abaphengululi nabameli babiza "inkqubo efunekayo" imigaqo efuna ukuba cace gca, ilungelo lokucacisa, kunye nolawulo lomntu olunentsingiselo kwiinkqubo zokwenza izigqibo ze-auto.

Uthutho norhoxiso

Umthetho wokufuduka unikela omnye ummandla apho ukhuseleko olufanelekileyo beluyingxaki enkulu yengxoxo kunye nelixa elibalulekileyo. INkundla Ephakamileyo ibisoloko ibambelele ekubeni iSicwangciso soLawulo lukaNondyebo sisebenza kubo bonke abantu abangaphakathi eUnited States, kungakhathaliseki ukuba bakwindawo enjani ekufudukeni, kodwa umlinganiselo wezikhuseli zeproceddy kwimicimbi yokufuduka uthintelwe ngokukhuselwa kokufuduka njengombandela wobulumko obuphezulu kunokuba ube ngumgaqo-siseko. Abangamelanga-mthetho abajongene netyala lokususwa kwetyala banelungelo lokuqaphela nokuva, unelungelo lokufumana ingcebiso ngeendleko zabo, kunye nethuba lokufumana ubungqina nokuhlola amangqina, kodwa ukukhuselwa kwemithetho ekhoyo enkundleni yabafuduki jikelele kuyinto encinane kunaleyo ekho kwinkundla yezaphuli-mthetho.

Ukudibana komthetho wokunyanzelisa abafuduki nomthetho wolwaphulo-mthetho kuye kwadala inkxalabo ekhethekileyo, ingakumbi kwiimeko apho abantu abangangeni kumaqhina akudala e-United States bephantsi kokuvalelwa ngokusemgangathweni nokususwa kwemiqathango yolwaphulo-mthetho. Ukusetyenziswa kukarhulumente kwemigaqo yokususwa komthetho okhutshwayo, evumela amagosa asebenza ekufudukeni kwabantu ukuba athethe ukuba basuswe ngaphandle kokuchotshelwa kweendlebe kwiimeko ezithile, kwakhona kuye kwacelwwa imbambano njengokwaphula inkqubo efanelekileyo. Njengoko ukunyanzeliswa kokufuduka kuselw'ityala ngokwezobupolitika, isicelo sokukhuselwa kwenkqubo efunekayo kokhuseleko kubantu abangengomatyala ekususweni kwemicimbi engomthetho kuhlala kungummandla onolwazi olubalulekileyo.

Isizathu Sokuba Inkqubo Efanelekileyo Ibaluleke Kulawulo Lwedemokhrasi

Imodeli ayiyonkqubo yomthetho nje yobugcisa; lilungu elisisiseko lolawulo-demokhrasi nomthetho. Iqinisekisa ukuba izenzo zikarhulumente ziphantsi kohlalutyo olusemthethweni, ukuba abantu banethuba elifanelekileyo lokucel ’ umngeni izigqibo zikarhulumente ezichaphazela ubomi babo, nokuba ukusetyenziswa kwegunya likarhulumente kunyanzelelwa ziinkqubo ezisesikweni nangamalungelo abantu. Ngaphandle kwenkqubo efanelekileyo, urhulumente uyazenza azimeleyo kwaye akaqiniseki, kwaye abantu bashiyeke bechanabekekile kwiingcinga zabo.

Ukukhusela abantu abathotyiweyo nababuthathaka abanokungabi nagunya lokukhusela izilangazelelo zabo kwinkqubo yedemokhrasi. Inkqubo elindelekileyo iqinisekisa ukuba kwanabo bangathandwayo kwezobupolitika okanye abangenayo intsebenziswano yentlalo bayakwazi ukufikelela kwiinkqubo ezifanelekileyo kunye nokuhlola imigaqo esesikweni.

Ngaphezu koko, inkqubo efunekayo isebenza umsebenzi obalulekileyo wezenzo zikarhulumente. Xa izigqibo zikarhulumente zenziwa ngendlela esesikweni necacileyo, abantu badla ngokwamkela ezo zigqibo naxa bengavumelani neziphumo. Ingqiqo yokusesikweni ibalulekile ekulondolozeni ukuthemba uluntu kumaziko karhulumente nakulawulo lomthetho.

Isiphelo

Inkqubo elindelekileyo iyaqhubeka ingumgaqo obalulekileyo nonamandla wenkqubo yomthetho waseMerika, okhusela abantu kwisenzo soburhulumente sobuqu ngeli xesha besamkela iimvavanyo ezintsha kunye neemeko. Ukusuka kwimvelaphi yayo kwiMagna Carta ukuya kwizicelo zayo zale mihla kumthetho wolawulo, isigwebo solwaphulo-mthetho, kunye neminyaka yoluvo-mthetho, kunye nexesha lonyaka, umgaqo wokuba urhulumente amele ahlonele iinkqubo ezifanelekileyo kunye namalungelo asisiseko ngaphambi kokuba ancitshise abantu ubomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla ingqineke iqinile ngendlela ephawulekayo. Ukuqonda imigaqo yeprocesss produration systems, imiqathango elawula ukuphuhlisa kwabo, kunye nocelomngeni banamhlanje ekuvavanyeni imiqathango yabo ukuze bakhulise ubumi bobuzwi kunye nokuxhasa amaxabiso esesikweni neyo esesikweni neyo kwintliziyo yomgaqo-ograliki ye-Melika.

Njengabemi, abafundisi, kunye nezifundiswa zomthetho, sinembopheleleko yokuqinisekisa ukuba inkqubo efanelekileyo iyaqhubeka ifeza injongo yayo esisiseko yokukhusela inkululeko yomntu ngamnye kwisenzo solawulo oluzimeleyo. Oku akufuni nje ukuqonda umthetho njengoko unjalo kodwa kukwafuna ukuba sijonge imibuzo enzulu ngenkqubo efunekayo kwiimeko ezintsha neziguquguqukayo. Ikamva lenkqubo efunekayo liya kuxhomekeka kwimbopheleleko yethu ehlangeneyo kumgaqo wokuba akukho mntu ufanele ahluthwe amalungelo akhe ngaphandle kokuqwalaselwa, ithuba elifanelekileyo lokuviwa, nokuhlonelwa kwenkululeko engundoqo ekhuselwa ngumGaqo-siseko.

Ukufundwa okubhekele phaya kwimbali kunye nokwenziwa kwenkqubo efunekayo, jonga i Cornell Incame Information yolwazi lwasemthethweni yecandelo elifanelekileyo, i-'Oyez's Project yetyala leNkundla ePhakamileyo ishwankathela [, kunye ne iCurttiontion Ancodition Ancodient's uhlalutyo loHlulo lweMxokelelwano lweNksombululo lwesihlanu.