Isiseko somGaqo-siseko senkqubo elindelekileyo

Umgaqo wenkqubo efunekayo ufakwe ngokunzulu kumthetho-siseko waseMelika. UMthetho wesihlanu, ovunywe ngo1791 njengenxalenye yeBhili yamaLungelo, uvakalisa ukuba akukho mntu oya "kukhutshwa kubomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla, ngaphandle kwenkqubo efanelekileyo yomthetho." UMthetho weMimiselo-Mdalethi, owamkelwa ngo-1868, wandisa olu khuselo lunye koorhulumente, uqinisekisa ukuba akukho rhulumente onokuthi "akho umntu wobomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla, ngaphandle kwenkqubo efanelekileyo yomthetho."

Imodeli ayiyonkqubo emiselweyo yemithetho kodwa ngumgangatho othambileyo ofuna okusesikweni okusisiseko. INkundla ePhakamileyo iye yahlula ngokwembali phakathi kweentlobo ezimbini: iprocessical system efunekayo, echaphazela amanyathelo karhulumente phambi kokuba athathe umntu othile wempahla, kwaye inkqubo efunekayo ephakathi kwendlela ezimbini: , elinganisela okuqulethweyo okanye umba wemithetho engqubana namalungelo empahla. Kumongomo wempahla, imoyenziwa yinkqubo efuna uhlolo, isaziso, ukuva, kunye nokwenza isigqibo esingakhethiyo.

IJaji Felix Frankfurder yakha yathi "ukuya phambili komthetho akuyontsingiselo nje engahlukaniyo." Yingcamango yokuba "ibonisa isimo sengqondo esinzulu sokusesikweni phakathi komntu nomntu, phakathi korhulumente kunye nabalawulwa." Le ngcamango yesiseko iqinisekisa ukuba urhulumente akanakusebenza njengomgwebi, umgwebi, kunye nombulali xa ethatha indawo yangasese.

Iintlobo zempahla karhulumente

Amandla karhulumente okuthatha impahla awela kwicandelo lokuqala: ummandla okhoyo, i-active ilahleko, kunye [ i-'pax' ye-xxpress' . Isebenza nganye phantsi kwesiseko esicacileyo kodwa zonke ziphantsi kwenkqubela-nkqubo ebekelwe imiqathango.

Ummandla ongundoqo kunye nokusetyenziswa kwabantu abaqhelekileyo

UHlaliso lweNhlanu luquka ukuthatha iPrimes Claus: "Impahla yabucala iya kuthathwa ukuze isetyenziswe nguwonke-wonke, ngaphandle kwembuyiselo." Urhulumente angathabatha impahla ngenjongo kawonke-wonke `njengendlela yokwakha, izikolo, okanye iipaki"uyixhobisa ngexabiso elifanelekileyo lemarike. Inkqubo efunekayo isekelwe ekubeni ukuxhuzula kusebenza ngokwenene kusini na [[[FLT:]] kwaye nokuba umnini ufumana isaziso esifanelekileyo kunye nethuba lokukhuphisana noxabiso.

Ityala eliphawulayo Kelo v. IsiXeko saseNew London (2005]) sandisa ngokuphawulekayo ingcaciso yokusetyenziswa kukawonke-wonke. INkundla Ephakamileyo yaba ne 5-4 yokuba inkqubela-phambili yezoqoqosho ifanelekele ukusetyenziswa nguwonke wonke, ivumela isixeko ukuba sithathe amakhaya azimeleyo ukwenzela umsebenzi worhwebo ophezulu. UJaji John Paul Stevens wabhalela uninzi ukuba "ukuzimisela kwesixeko ukuba indawo inxunguphazelelwe ngokwaneleyo ukuqinisekisa ukuba icebo lophuhliso lalinelungelo lokuvala ityala." Isigqibo samazwe asekuhlaleni sabangela ukuba anikezele imithetho esemva kwemithetho ephambili kumazwe amaninzi athintele ummandla obalulekileyo ukwenzela inzuzo yoqoqosho. , , iConcticut ngokwawo sayivala uqeqesho kunyaka owe-201717.

Ngokwahlukileyo koko, Loretto v. Teleprompter Manhattan CatV Corp. (1982) yathetha umsebenzi wezinto zokwenyama osisigxina. INkundla ePhakamileyo yagqiba kwelokuba kwanebhokisi encinane yentsontelo yentsimbi efakwe kwisakhiwo efakwe imfuneko yokufuna imbuyiselo, iqinisekisa umgaqo wokuba nakuphi na ukuhlasela okusisigxina komzimba kungqubana nokukhusela okufanelekileyo.

Inkcitho

Impahla efunyanwa ngurhulumente ivumela urhulumente ukuba athabathe impahla erhanelwa ukuba ibandakanyeke kumsebenzi wolwaphulo-mthetho, okanye ngaphandle kokunyanzela umnini ngolwaphulo-mthetho. Umgangatho osemthethweni usoloko ungunobangela ogxekwayo [[FLT: 0] ongafanelekanga womhlaba odityaniswe kwihambo engekho mthethweni, umthwalo ophantsi kakhulu kuno ukungaqiniseki okufanelekileyo [ umlinganiselo ofunekayo wolwaphulo-mthetho. Abagxeki baphikisa le nkqubo ihlazisa inkqubo efanelekileyo ngenxa yokuba impahla inokuthathwa isekelwe ekukrokrelezweni kuphela, kwaye abaniniyo basoloko bejongenenkqubo ebiza imali eninzi nenzima ukuze bayifumane kwakhona.

INkundla Ephakamileyo yathetha ngeemfuno zenkqubo ezifunekayo ku- United States v. uJames Daniel Good Real Preal (1993). INkundla yathi urhulumente akanakukwazi ukuthatha impahla yokwenene ngokuphulukana norhulumente ngaphandle kokunika umniniyo isaziso ngaphambili kunye nethuba lokuchongwa. UJaji Anthony Kennedy wabhala ukuba "ukungaphandleka kwangaphambili kwaye ukuva kusemzinziswa kusemgangathweni wenkqubo efanelekileyo yomgaqo-mGaqo-siseko." Isigqibo sanciphisa lo msebenzi kodwa asiwuphelisangawuqeshwanga; ukulahlwa kwesixhobo esinamandla sokulawula urhulumente nomthetho.

Kutshanje, Caperton v. A.T. Massay Coal. [2009], ngeli xesha ingeyiyo ityala lokuxhuzula, igxininisa ukuba inkqubo efunekayo ifuna ukuba abagwebi bangacaluli qhawe qha, ngokomthetho onwebela ukulahlekelwa kwemicimbi apho urhulumente afumana khona iimpahla.

Irhafu Nobuxoki

I-IRS ingathabatha indawo ukuze yanelise irhafu engahlawulwayo phantsi kwegunya leKhowudi yeNguqu Yangaphakathi. Ngoxa ukuxhuzula kwerhafu kuphantsi kwenkqubo efunekayo, iNkundla ePhakamileyo isoloko ibambelele ekubeni urhulumente angaqokelela irhafu ngaphandle kwesaziso ukuba kuyimfuneko ukuthintela ukubhaqwa. Noko ke, umniniyo ufumana isaziso sokuposa kwe-secure kwaye ilungelo lokuva. Imeko ye-[FLT:] i-Philipps v. uKhomishinalanti ye-Internanti [[FLT:] [193] [193]) [193] ixhasa ukuqokelelwa kwerhafu yerhafu kodwa ngenxa yokuba ukuva okulandelayo bekukho. I-IRS ifuna ukuba kunikezelwe [[FLT]

Imfuneko Yokuphawula Neyokuva

Embindini kwinkqubo efunekayo yokukhupha iprojekthi efunekayo ngurhulumente onika isaziso esinganele kunye nento efunekayo yokuva phambi kokuba ihlulwe umntu othile wempahla. Inkundla ePhakamileyo kwi Mulne v. I-Central Hancover Bank & Trust Co. [1950]) isaziso simisela ukuba kufuneka "ikhawuleziwe, phantsi kwazo zonke iimeko, ukubeka amaqela anomdla wesenzo esiphelisiweyo kwaye anike ithuba lokunika ukuchasa kwabo. Oku kuthetha ukuba iphephandaba jikelele linganganele ukuba liyayazi idilesi yomnini worhulumente.

Fuetes v. Shevin (1972], iNkundla yawisa umthetho we-Florida ovumela amaqela azimeleyo ukuba athabathe impahla yasekhaya ngaphandle kokuvakala. UMbumbi weJaji uStewart wabhala ukuba "ilungelo lokuviwa alixhomekekanga kukubonisa kwangaphambili ukuba umntu uya kuphumelela kwiinzuzo." Isigqibo saqinisekisa ukuba kwanempahla yexeshana ifuna ukuchotshelwa ngaphandle kokuba iimeko ezingaqhelekanga zikhona.

Umgangatho wangoku wokulungelelanisa izilangazelelo zikarhulumente nxamnye namalungelo omntu ngamnye omhlaba Ama-Mathews v. Eldidge uvavanyo (19976). INkundla yazicacisa kakuhle izinto ezintathu:

  1. Inzala yobuqu yachaphazeleka linyathelo elisemthethweni.
  2. Umngcipheko wokungahlawulwa ngempazamo kwinkqubo zangoku kunye nexabiso elilindelekileyo lezinto zokukhusela ezongezelelweyo.
  3. Inzala karhulumente, kuquka umthwalo wemali kunye nolawulo lwenkqubo ezongezelelweyo.

Olu vavanyo lokulinganisela luthetha ukuba asilulo lonke umlinganiselo wokuxhuzula kwempahla ofuna umgangatho ofanayo. Ukuphatha indlu kufuna ukhuseleko olungakumbi kunokuthatha isithuthi esirhanelwa ngokurhwetyelelwa kweziyobisi. Urhulumente kufuneka alungelelanise imigaqo yayo nobunzulu bokuswela.

Izinto Ezikhethekileyo Ezamkelekileyo Ngaphambi Kokuba Kubonwe Yaye Kuve

Ngoxa inkqubo efanelekileyo ifuna isaziso sangaphambili nokuchongwa, iindidi eziliqela eziqwalaselweyo zivumela urhulumente ukuba athabathe indawo kuqala aze anikezele kwinkqubo kamva.

Iimeko Ezimandundu

Ukuba kukho isisongelo esikhawulezileyo sokuba impahla iza kutshatyalaliswa, ishenxisiwe, okanye isetyenziswe ukwenzela umsebenzi wolwaphulo-mthetho obhekele phambili, amapolisa angayithabatha ngaphandle kwemvume okanye ngaphambi kokuba aviwe. Umzekelo, ukurhwebelana ngenqanawa okuza kutshatyalaliswa kungathathwa phantsi konyanzelo. Le Nkundla e Carroll v. United States [1925] (1925) isenokuvuma kuqala ukunxaxhina kwemoto, uphengululo olungenasiqinisekiso ukuba kukho isizathu esinokwenzeka sokuhamba kwayo. Oku kwahlukeneyo kwandisa ukuxhuzula kwempahla edityaniswe kwizithuthi.

Imbono Ecacileyo

Ukuba umphathi ukho ngokusemthethweni kwaye ubona ubungqina okanye ukungabikho kwemithetho ecacileyo, bangayithabatha ngaphandle kwesiqinisekiso. Le Nkundla Ephakamileyo kwi Horton v. California (1990) icacisa ukuba igosa kufuneka libe nokufumaneka okusemthethweni kwinto, umntu ophetheyo kufuneka abonakale ngoko nangoko, kwaye ukufunyanwa makungabi nasiqinisekiso. Le mfundiso ayiyicimi ngokupheleleyo inkqubo efanelekileyo kodwa inqumamisa ukuchotshelwa kweposi-ye-izure.

Iziqhoboshelo zeSahlulelo sangaphambili

Kumatyala athile asekuhlaleni, abo babolekiweyo bangafumana umyalelo wenkundla wokufumana impahla phambi komgwebo ukuba obolekayo unakho ukubaleka okanye afihle izinto. Uxhulumaniso v. Doehr (1991) ubambelele kwimidibaniso enjalo ifuna ukuchongwa kwangaphambi kokuba iimeko ezithile zikho, ngaloo ndlela inqanda inkqubela efanelekileyo kule ndawo.

Imeko Yembali Nendaleko

Ingcamango yenkqubo efunekayo ibuyela emva kuMagna Carta (1215), eyaqinisekisa ukuba akukho mntu okhululekileyo oza kuthi abanjwe okanye afakwe entolongweni... ngaphandle komgwebo osemthethweni wabalingani okanye umthetho welizwe. Ama-Melika angamaKoloni ayeyazi kakuhle into yokuxhuzula kwempahla ezenzekelayo phantsi kolawulo lwamaBritane, kuquka imvume jikelele kunye noncedo olusetyenziswayo ukunyanzelisa imithetho yezorhwebo. Uwesine nowesihlanu uMnyuso-zinyuso wawuzicombululo ezithe ngqo kwezi zityholo.

Ngenkulungwane ye-19, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yabeka inkqubo efunekayo kwimicimbi engundoqo. I-Slaughter- House Cases (1873) ekuqaleni yasikelela isicelo soLawulo lwe 147, kodwa kamva izigqibo ezifana ne [FLT: 0] iChicago, Burlington & Lamp; Quincy Railroad Co. v Chicago [1897]) yafaka ukuthatha u-Claus echasene namazwe, ukwandisa inkqubo efunekayo yokukhusela impahla.

Inkulungwane yama-20 yabona ukwanda okuphawulekayo kwenkqubo efanelekileyo yokuxhuzula kwempahla ngemizekelo yeNkundla yaseWarren neNkundla yaseBurger, ukuseka ingcebiso yale mihla yesaziso, ukuva, kunye nokungacaluli. Izikhulu-phambili ezithe zalungela ukukhusela oku, zizilungelelanisa nxamnye nezilangazelelo zomthetho.

Inkqubela Efanelekileyo Njengokusikelwa Imida Kwamandla Karhulumente

Inkqubo elindelekileyo isebenza njengovavanyo lokwakha kwigunya likarhulumente. Inyanzela urhulumente ukuba athobe, anike ulwazi, aze athethelele izenzo zakhe ngaphambi kokuba athabathe impahla ngokusisigxina. Olu mlinganiselo ubonisa ukungathembani kwabaseki bamandla ajolisekileyo. UJames Madison wabhala kuMbutho woManyano-manani we 10 ukuba ukukhusela amalungelo empahla yayiyinjongo engundoqo yomGaqo-siseko, kwaye inkqubo efunekayo yinkqubo yeprocedtura yeso sikhuseli.

Imfuneko yokuchotshelwa phambi kokuphazanyiswa idala umahluko onamandla kwizenzo ezinyanzelisayo. Njengoko iNkundla yaphawula kwi ifunyaniswe kwi-Fantis, "ilungelo lokuviwa linokuba lixabiso elincinane ukuba ukuva kunokulimiswa ngokungenasiphelo" ngokufuna urhulumente athwale umthwalo wobungqina phambi kokuba athathe impahla, imo efunekayo iqinisekisa ukuba iimpazamo ziyancitshiswa.

Uphando lwangoku lubonise ukuba zichaza iimfuno ezingqongqo zenkqubo efunekayo ukwenzela ukulahlekelwa kwemibutho yabemi, ngokufana nokufuna ukunyanzeleka kwetyala lolwaphulo-mthetho phambi kokulahlwa kokuphela kwemeko((*) nokubona ukuxhatshazwa okumbalwa kunye nomlinganiselo ophantsi wesifo sokuxhuzula. Amanye amaziko amisele utshintsho olufuziselwe kwimigaqo efunekayo, njengokufuna urhulumente ukuba angqine ngokucacileyo nangokweyiseka ukuba impahla ilahlekile, kunokuba kubonwe nje unobangela olindelekileyo.

Kwangaxeshanye, inkqubo efanelekileyo ayiphelelanga. Urhulumente ugcina amandla abalulekileyo okuthatha impahla ngexesha longxamiseko, kwimisebenzi kawonke-wonke, nakuphando lolwaphulo-mthetho. Ukulungelelaniswa komgangatho kuxhomekeke kwindlela okuthwaxwa ngayo nokungamalungelo asengozini.

Iimpendulo Zomthetho Nemigudu Yotshintsho

Uxinzeleleko phakathi komsebenzi olungileyo karhulumente kunye nenkqubo efunekayo lukhokelele kumadabi owiso-mthetho aqhubekayo. Ekuphenduleni Kelo, amatyala angamashumi amane anesine adlulise imithetho ethintela ummandla obalulekileyo wophuhliso loqoqosho lwabucala. Le mithetho idla ngokufuna ukuboniswa okuphezulu kwemfuneko kawonke-wonke kunye nembuyekezo engakumbi kubanini-mali abashenxileyo.

Ukulahlekelwa kwesizwe, amaphondo amaninzi aye ashukunyiselwa ukuba afune ulwamkelo lolwaphulo-mthetho phambi kokuba impahla ilahleke ngokusisigxina. Isigqibo seNkundla ePhakamileyo kwi i-Ianco v. Brunetti[FLT]] [2011]) iphethe indawo eyahlukileyo `````````itrademarkmark'''' , kodwa umgaqo wembono yemiqathango kumiqathango karhulumente, uchaphazela namalungelo empahla. IBhunga ebanzi, iqonde i-DErriventierventivery' ngokubonakalisa ukungonelisa intelekelelo kubungqina obungasayinwe yi-Genegascreairveticer.

Kumgangatho wombuso, iNgqungquthela yeSizwe yoMgaqo-siseko weMiqathango ilahleke utshintsho . Ngowama-2025, 14 amazwe afuna ukunyanzeliswa kwetyala phambi kokulahlekelwa, ukusuka kwisibini kuphela ngo-2010. Olu tshintsho lusekelwe ngqo kwimfuno efunekayo: abanini-mpahla akufunekanga baphulukane nempahla yabo ngaphandle kokuqinisekiswa ukuba banetyala ngokungenakuphikiswa.

Isiphumo: Ukunyuswa okuqhubekayo kweNkqubo elindelekileyo

Inkqubo elindelekileyo ihlala ingumthetho-siseko olawula urhulumente kwimikhwa yempahla. Ngoxa urhulumente eneenjongo ezifanelekileyo ekulweni nolwaphulo-mthetho, ukuqokelela ingeniso, nokuxhasa izibonelelo zikawonke-wonke, akanakufikelela ezi njongo ngokulahlekelwa kokusesikweni okusisiseko. UMthetho wokuLandlwa kwemiqathango wesihlanu noweshumi elinesine uqinisekisa ukuba impahla ayithatyathwa ngokungxama okanye ngokungenamava.

Njengokuba ubugcisa buguquka ngezantsi, ukuvumela iimpahla zexabiso lemivo, ukuwa kwempahla ye-data, nokujoliswa kwento ye-data ekwixhoba eliyi-"/iikhoncorts ziya kuqhubeka zisebenzisa inkqubo efunekayo. Imigaqo engundoqo ishiyekile: isaziso, ukuva, ukungacaluli, kunye nokulingana. Abanini beempahla abawaqondayo la malungelo banokuzikhusela ngakumbi kurhulumente ochukumisiweyo.

Ukufundwa okubhekele phaya, iprojekthi yeprojekthi [[FLT: 1] yeprojekthi yenkqubela efunekayo inika uhlaziyo oluneenkcukacha lwezigqibo zeNkundla ePhakamileyo. ICornell Legin Information Institute's ichaza uqheliselo olufanelekileyo lwenkqubo ye-mcamango [[ inika ukhokelo olubanzi olusemthethweni. Ekugqibeleni, iSebe leJaji elikwicandelo elikwindawo ephezulu lichaza uqheliselo lwangoku lwamaqululo lwamanyeneyo.