Ukwazisa

Ukudibana kwengozi ephindwe kabini nemfundiso yesohlwayo esiphindiweyo kusentliziyweni yomthetho wale mihla ogwetywayo. Zombini ezi migaqo zenzelwe ukuvavanya amandla karhulumente nokukhusela abamangalelwa kwimithwalo enzima engekho ngqiqweni okanye engokwasemthethweni. Kodwa zisebenza kwimibhobho eyahlukeneyo kwaye zidla ngokuphakamisa imibuzo enzima kwiinkundla. Eli nqaku linikela uhlolo olunzulu lwemfundiso nganye, lihlolisisa indlela abaqhubana ngayo, kwaye lihlalutya ubungcangcazi obusemthethweni obuthintileyo xa iinkolelo ezininzi kunye nezohlwayo ezininzi zisengozini.

Isiseko Sokhuseleko Olubini

Imvelaphi Yembali Nesiseko SomGaqo-siseko

Ubungozi obuphindwe kabini ngumthetho othintela urhulumente ekuzameni umntu ityala elifanayo ngaphezu kwesihlandlo esinye emva kokugwetywa okanye ukuqinisekiswa. Lo mgaqo unemvelaphi yakudala, ebonakala kumthetho wamaNgesi wamaRoma nawoMphakathi, kwaye wamiselwa ngokuqinileyo kumthetho oqhelekileyo ngexesha lokusekwa kweMelika. Ngaphantsi koMmiselo wesihlanu kuMgaqo-siseko waseUnited States, “Akukho mntu oya... kubekwa esichengeni esiphindwe kabini sobomi okanye ilungu.”

Iinjongo ezingundoqo zokhuseleko oluphindwe kabini kukukhusela abantu kwiingxaki ezingokweemvakalelo, zemali, nezedume lokutyholwa ngokuphindaphindiweyo; ukugcina isiphelo semigwebo yolwaphulo-mthetho; nokuthintela urhulumente ekusebenziseni ubuncwane bakhe obuphezulu ukukonakalisa ummangalelwa. Ukukhusela xa inkundla yabachopheli-tyala ibekwa kwindawo esesikweni kwaye ifunwe, okanye xa ingqina lokuqala lifungelwa kwityala lebhenji.

Yintoni Ebangela Ukuba Onjalo Aphathwe?

Umbuzo obalulekileyo ophantsi kobungozi obuphindiweyo ngu-1932 obalulekileyo "ityala elifanayo". Inkundla ePhakamileyo yavelisa uvavanyo lwe-'FLT:0] lwe-stitburger ku- .S.S. [1932]: ukuba izicwangciso ezimbini zemithetho nganye ifuna ubungqina bokuba enye ayisohlwayo, asilotyala elinye. Kodwa, ukuba ityala liqukiwe kancinci, bathathwa njengetyala elinye ngenxa yezizathu eziyingozi. Umzekelo, umgqwebeki-mkeli akanakubekwa ityala lokubulala kokuqala kokuqala nokubulala okwesibini ngenxa yokubulala okuyesibini kubulala bonke abantu ngenxa yokubulala okwesibini.

Olu vavanyo lunenjongo kwaye lubhekisa kwimiqathango esemthethweni yolwaphulo-mthetho, hayi ubungqina obunikiweyo xa kuvavanywa. Uvavanyo olunqanda ukuvavanywa lusetyenziswa zombini ukufumanisa ukuba ingtshutshiso yamva ithintelwe ngengozi ephindwe kabini kwaye igqibele ukuba ingqeqesho ezininzi zehambo enye zivumelekile na.

Ezikhethekileyo Neziphene

Umngcipheko ophindwe kabini awuphelelanga. Iintlobo eziliqela ezingaziwayo ziyasebenza:

  • Ityala: Ukuba ityala livakaliswe ngemvume yommangalelwa okanye ngenxa yokubonakalisa imfuneko (umz., umgwebi oxhotyisiweyo), ityala livumelekile kwakhona.
  • [[Umthetho:0] Uqulunqe emva kwesicelo esinempumelelo: Ummangalelwa ofumana isibheno ngokuchasene nolweyiseko angaphinda abekwe kwakhona ngaphandle kokuba umhlaba wokuguqula wawungabubo ubungqina obunganele.
  • Abalawuli abalawulayo: Imfundiso edityanisiweyo yolongamo ivumela urhulumente norhulumente wezwe ukuba bamangalele umntu omnye ukwenzela isenzo esinye ukuba oko kuphule yomibini imithetho.
  • Ityala: Ityala eliphindiweyo libalelwa kuphela kwii-jaji ezilandelelanayo zolwaphulo-mthetho. Urhulumente angabeka izalathiso zamakhaya (umz., ilahleko, isohlwayo) kwanasemva kwetyala lolwaphulo-mthetho, lo gama ezo zigwebo zingaba “zisohlwayo ngokwenjongo okanye isiphumo esifana nokuthathwa njengesaphuli-mthetho.”

Imfundiso Yesohlwayo Esiphindwe Kabini: Imigaqo Nokusetyenziswa Kwaso

Isalathisi somsebenzi

Imfundiso yesohlwayo esiphindwe kabini ngumgaqo owahlukileyo kodwa onxulumeneyo othintela isohlwayo esininzi sesenzo esinye ngaphandle kokuba indlu yowiso-mthetho inike imvume ecacileyo. Ngoxa ingozi ephindwe kabini ibhekisa kwizilingo ezilandelelanayo, isohlwayo esiphinda-phindiweyo sibhekisele kwisigwebo ngokwaso. Le mfundiso isekelwe kwisiqinisekiso somgaqo-siseko senkqubo efanelekileyo kwaye, kwezinye iindawo, kumalungiselelo acacileyo afana ne isigwebo ngokuchasene nentengiso egqithisileyo [[[[FLTL:1]] kwiSimiselo se-Exption okanye ukhuseleko lwe-gradibet.

Impatho-mbini ingundoqo: isohlwayo kufuneka silufanele ulwaphulo-mthetho, kwaye isohlwayo esininzi sesenzo esinye esiphosakeleyo asifanele sibe sisongezelelo ukuya kwinqanaba lokuba lukhulu. Iinkundla zidla ngokubiza umgaqo wetyala [[[FLT]]] ."Xa ummiselo wesigebenga ucacile, kufuneka utolikwe ukuxhasa ummangalelwa kwaye uchasene nesohlwayo esiphindaphindiweyo.

Uvavanyo lweblockbuster nemfundiso edityanisiweyo

Uvavanyo olufanayo olunqanda i-'FLT''r lukwalawula ukuba isohlwayo esiphindaphindiweyo sisenokubekwa na kwisilingo esinye. Phantsi Missouri v. Hunter [19983], iNkundla ePhakamileyo ibambe ukuba iingqnatho eziphindwe kabini azikunqandi ukubetha ingqeqesho ephindaphindiweyo ukuba indlu yowiso ifuna ngokucacileyo ukugunyaziswa ngenxa yesenzo esinye. Kodwa, xa icebo lomthetho lingaqondakali, iinkundla zisebenza stator ukugqiba ukuba izenzo zinjalo. Ukuba zinjalo, izigwebo kufuneka zidityaniswe, intsingiselo yomBhul-Alder i-oddiast.

Imfundiso yokudibanisa isebenza ngokwahlukileyo kwimimandla eyahlukeneyo. Amanye amaphondo anomthetho wokuba amatyala athile angaphantsi adibana kwityala elikhulu ngokuzenzekelayo (umz., ukuqhatha kudibana nokubulala okungalawulekiyo ukuba ukuphanga kungunobangela ophambili). Amanye amaphondo avumela isohlwayo sonyuselo esikhutshwayo kuphela xa iityala zahlukile ngexesha, endaweni, okanye injongo.

Isigwebo Esiphindiweyo Ngenxa Yehambo Efanayo

Iziphumo ezibini zesohlwayo zidla ngokuvela kumatyala olwahlulo okanye oqhubekekayo. Qwalasela ummangalelwa ophanga ebhankini esebenzisa umpu. Ngokuxhomekeke kwimithetho, usenokubekwa ityala lokuphanga ebhankini, ukuphanga ngezixhobo, ukusebenzisa umpu ngexesha lolwaphulo-mthetho logonyamelo, kunye nokuba nezixhobo zokulwa njengetyala. Umbuzo ngulokuba zingaphi iso esivumelekileyo. Inkundla mayiwahlule amatyala ngamanye, ihlole enoba isohlwayo isiseko sowiso ngamnye umiselwe ukuba asohlwaywe ngokukhunga.

Enye intsonkothe yale mihla kukusetyenziswa kolwandiso olusekelwe kwinkolelo yangaphambili okanye kubukho besixhobo. Ukunyuswa akugqalwa njengezisohlwayo ezahlukileyo zetyala elifanayo phantsi kwengozi ephindwe kabini, kuba kwandisa isohlwayo solwaphulo-mthetho olunye kunokuba kohlwaye ihambo eyahlukileyo. Noko ke, inkqubo efunekayo ifuna ukuba unyuselo lungaphumeli kwisivakalisi esinetyala eside.

Indlela Ekubini Ukusebenzisana Ngempazamo Nesohlwayo Esiphindwe Kabini

Owahlukileyo Kodwa Ukhusela

Ezi mfundiso zimbini zinezimo ezingafaniyo. Umngcipheko ophindwe kabini usebenza kwinqanaba lokutshutshiswa, ukungxengxeza emva kokuncamathisela iingozi. Isohlwayo esiphinda-phindekayo sisebenza kwinqanaba lokugwetywa, silinganisela izigwebo ezizinzileyo inkundla enokuzimisela kwinyathelo elinye. Phezu kwako oko, baneenjongo ezifanayo: ukuthintela urhulumente ekusebenziseni amandla akhe ekucinezeleni abantu ngeemvavanyo eziphindaphindiweyo okanye izigwebo ezigqithisileyo.

Intsebenziswano yabo iyabonakala kakhulu xa ummangalelwa egwetywa ngetyala elininzi ngenxa yesenzo esinye. Ukuba iinkolelo zifanelekile phantsi kwengozi ephindwe kabini (ngenxa yokuba azisosohlwayo esifanayo), inkundla kufuneka iqinisekise ukuba izigwebo aziyosohlwayo esiphindwe kabini. Ngoko, iingozi eziphindwe kabini zinika umbuzo womqobo; isohlwayo esiphinda kabini silungisa iziphumo zesigwebo.

Ukuzithethelela Ngokugqithisileyo: Xa Iinkolelo Ezininzi Zikhokelela Kwisohlwayo Esiphindwe Kabini

Qwalasela ityala apho ummangalelwa agwetywa khona ngokuphanga exhobileyo kunye nokuba nemipu ngexa esenza ulwaphulo-mthetho logonyamelo. Phantsi , ezi zityala ezohlukeneyo ngenxa yokuba ukuba umnini wazo ufuna ubungqina bokufumana, obungasiyo isiseko sokuphanga. Noko ke, indlu yowiso-mthetho ingayi kuceba ukunyusela izigwebo. Ukuba ummiselo uthi isigwebo sesi tyala sobabini simele siqhube ngokulandelelana, inkundla iya kuphakamisa imiyalelo elandelelanayo. Kodwa ukuba inkundla ithe cwaka, inkundla mayisebenzise i- i-''''''' i-'inqawe'' okanye ingayimiselanga isigwebo esincinci, kwaye ukuba uvavanyo luqukiwe, i-vte isigwebo esincinane.

Indawo eqhelekileyo yodideko yingcamango ye echaphazelekayo kunye neyesivakalisi sangoku. Izivakalisi ezibini zithathwa njengesohlwayo esinye ukuba zisebenza ngexesha elinye, kodwa amabinzana alandelelanayo afaka isohlwayo esidityanisiweyo. Noko ke, uhlalutyo oluphindiweyo lugxininisa ukuba ngaba i-authority i-authority [[FLT]] ukunyanzela isohlwayo esininzi, hayi ubude bexesha elisebenzayo. Ukuba ummangalelwa wamkela iminyaka eli-10 ngokokubalwa kwesohlwayo, oko kufana nesohlwayo esinye esilinganiselwe kwiminyaka elishumi; ukuba i-ethe rhoqo, i-e, iyonke yiminyaka engama-20.

Amatyala Nengcaciso Yezogwebo

Izigqibo eziliqela eziphawulekayo zibonisa le midlalo:

  • i-'tabburger v. United States (1932): Ummangalelwa wathengisa ii-narcotics kwintengiso ezimbini ezahlukeneyo. Wagwetyelwa ngemiba emibini yokuthengisa iziyobisi ezithile ezingekho kwipakethi yokuqala kunye nobunzima obubini bokuthengisa iziyobisi ngaphandle komyalelo obhaliweyo. Inkundla yaba nento yokuba iisethi ezimbini ezibandakanyekileyo zetyala ngenxa yobungqina obufunekayo bento eyahlukileyo. Isigwebo sagcinwa, kwaye ityala lamiswa uvavanyo lwamalungu anamhlanje.
  • [FLT] United States v. Dixon (1993): INkundla yaqinisekisa kwakhona ukuba iindidi ezifanayo zilawula ubungozi obuphindiweyo, ukugqithisa “ihambo efanayo” eluvavanyweni olusuka [[FLT:]] Grady v. Corbin. Le sigqibo sacacisa ukuba iingozi eziphindaphindiweyo aziso zibangela ukuba ulwaphulo-mthetho luphumele kwihambo enye ukuba iziqalelo ziyahluka, nokuba ihambo iyafana.
  • Missouri v. Uphicotho (19983): Ummangalelwa wabanjwa ekwaphulweni kokuqala kobabini nokuxhobiwe kwezenzo zolwaphulo-mthetho kuphangi olufanayo. INkundla yabambelela ekubeni ngenxa yokuba indlu yowiso-mthetho yayizimisele ukuvumela isohlwayo esinyusiweyo sezo tyala ezibini, umngcipheko ophindwe kabini. Lo mcimbi ugxininiso lomthetho njengentsontela engundoqo ekuhlalutyeni iso kabini.

La matyala abonisa ukuba nangona imilinganiselo ephindwe kabini nesohlwayo sidityanisiwe, umthetho unikela umlinganiselo ophakamileyo wokungathobeli izigqibo zowiso - mthetho ngendlela yokumisela isohlwayo xa ulwaphulo - mthetho lungenayo.

Iinkalo Ezintsonkothileyo Nezahlukileyo

Ulawulo Olumanyeneyo Neentshutshiso Ezahlukeneyo

Imfundiso yolongamo olubini yenye yezona zilwayo ezibangela ubungozi obuphindwe kabini. Ngaphantsi kwayo, urhulumente norhulumente worhulumente bathathwa njengabalawuli abahlukeneyo, ngamnye enegunya lokubohlwaya ngenxa yokwaphulwa kwemithetho yakhe. Ngalo ndlela, umntu unokuvavanywa kwinkundla yesizwe ngenxa yokwaphulwa kwamalungelo abantu emva kokuba ekhululwe kwinkundla yelizwe ngenxa yokuhlasela okufanayo. Abahlalutyi baphikisa oku balulaza umoya wengozi ephindwe kabini kwaye bavumela oorhulumente ukuba baphephe imigaqo. Inkundla ephakamileyo iye yayixhasa ngokuphindaphindiwe imfundiso, kutshanje kakhulu kwi [[FLT:]Gaggglev. United States[FLD:1] v. (2010])

Le mfundiso iyasebenza nakumaphondo ahlukeneyo, kodwa amazwe amabini anokumangalela umntu omnye ngesenzo esinye ukuba isenzo sona sona sona sobabini amagosa asekuhlaleni. Oku kunokubangela ukuba umntu ohlwaywa ngokuphindwe kabini aphinde abekwe ityala, nangona abatshutshisi besoloko benxibelelana ukuze baphephe ukugwetywa ngokutsha.

Ityala Laseburhulumenteni Netyala Lezaphuli-mthetho

Ubungozi obuphindwe kabini abuyivumeli isohlwayo sabemi, kwanaxa bebekwa emva kwetyala lolwaphulo-mthetho ngenxa yehambo enye. Umahluko ongundoqo kukuba ngaba isohlwayo sabemi sisohlwayo esiya kuba “sibi” ngokwemvelo. Iinkundla zisebenzisa uvavanyo lwezibonelelo ezininzi ukugqiba: nokuba imvume ibandakanya ukuvuma ukukhubazeka okanye ukuzibamba, nokuba ijongwe ngokwembali njengesohlwayo, nokuba ifuna ukufunyanwa kwesohlwayo, nokuba injongo yayo yimpindezelo okanye iyathintela. Umzekelo, ukulahlekelwa yimali yamakhaya kudla ngokuthathwa njengento engabangelwangangeni tyala, kodwa ilahleko yetyala efanelwe yisukruthi ephinda kabini ukuba ifuna ukohlwaywa ukuba ingulwa kunokuba isohlwaywe.

Inkundla ePhakamileyo yathetha oku kwi . v. United States [[FLT] [1997], ibambe okokuba izigwebo zemali zabemi ezibekwe yi-Ofisi yeNkqulu yemali azizange zenze isohlwayo ngezizathu eziphindiweyo zobungozi, nangona ihambo ephambili nayo yakhokelela kwityala lolwaphulo-mthetho. Inkundla yagxininisa ukuba izigwebo zabemi zaziyimpinda yendalo, zijoliswe ekukhuseleni ingqibelelo yenkqubo yokubhanki.

Inkqubela-phambili yokukhulula nokunyuswa kwesigwebo

Inkxalabo eyahlukileyo kumthetho jikelele wezaphuli-mthetho. Noko ke, abamangalelwa banokuthunyelwa entolongweni ngenxa yokudelelwa nokusohlwaywa kwetyala, nokuba imo yesenzo esifanayo ingulwaphulo-mthetho. Isizathu sokuba ukuthotywa kwetyala kukhusela igunya lenkundla, inkxalabo eyahlukileyo kumthetho wezolwaphulo-mthetho jikelele. Noko ke, abamangalelwa banokuthunyelwa entolongweni ngenxa yokudelelwa kunye netyala lolwaphulo-mthetho elivela kwisenzo esinye, logama nje izigwebo zisebenza iinjongo ezahlukileyo, kwaye omnye unyanzelisa ukuthobela umyalelo wenkundla kunye nomnye wokohlwaya ulwaphulo-mthetho olufihlakeleyo. Oku kunokwenzeka okubini akuyi kungqubana nokuphindwa okuphinda kabini ngenxa yokuba ukudelwa kuthathwa njengesenzo solwaphulo-mthetho esiqhutywa ngenjongo eyahlukileyo.

Ukunyuswa kwesigwebo, njengokusetyenziswa komthetho oqhelekileyo okanye ukukhutshwa kwemipu, kukwaxhathisa imingeni ephindiweyo yesohlwayo. Iinkundla zidla ngokujonga ukunyuswa njengendlela yokulungisa isohlwayo esisisiseko solwaphulo-mthetho, hayi njengesohlwayo esahlukileyo. i-'''''''''' i-'''' ayisebenzi ekuphuculeni uvavanyo. Noko ke, ukuba unyuselo lusekelwe kwisibakala esingulwaphulo-mthetho olwahlukileyo (umz., ukusebenzisa ing. umpu), ukunyuswa kungabethwa ukuba into enye isetyenziswa ukuxhasa ukuqiniseka okwahlukeneyo. ukubalalk' imibalo isenokuvela, kwaye inqanda ukunqanda uninzi lusebenzisa imo lwendlela yolwahlulo.

Ingqikelelo-magama

Ukuzibetha Kabini Nesohlwayo Esiphindwe Kabini Kweminye Imiqathango Yomthetho Oqhelekileyo

Ngoxa umthetho waseMerika ujonga iingozi eziphindwe kabini nesohlwayo esiphindwe kabini njengesinxulumeneyo kodwa esahlukileyo, amanye amazwe aqhelekileyo ajonga le mibandela ngokwahlukileyo.

uBukumkani obumanyeneyo: i-Greek enomthetho ophindwe kabini wokhuseleko phantsi koMthetho weJaji yeCwarl Justice 2003, kunye neendlela ezimxinwa zezolwaphulo-mthetho ezinzulu apho ubungqina obutsha nobunyanzelisayo buvela khona. Ingcamango yokohlwaya okuphindiweyo ichazwa ngumgaqo we-[[FLT] [FLT]] umlinganiselo wesivakalisi [[[FLT:]]] [FLT]] [3] egwebeni: isigwebo sonke kufuneka sibe sesikweni kwaye silungelelene, kwaye iinkundla ziphephe ukusenza sibe sinzima kakhulu xa kuvela ityala elininzi kwisiganeko esinye. Ngokungafaniyo U.S., iUK. idityaniswe ngakumbi nto edibanisa ubungozi kunye nesohlwayo obuphinda kabini kwingqiqo kwintelelo elungileyo.

Canada: ISicatshulwa sase Canada samalungelo nenkululeko sinikela kwicandelo 11(h) ukuba umntu akanakuphinda avavanywe ngetyala elithe lathi lakhululwa okanye lagwetywa. Inkundla ePhakamileyo yase Canada itolike ngokuphangaleleyo, ityala elifanayo "elikwityala elingaphambili" njengetyala elingaphambili. IKhanada inomthetho ochasene netyala elininzi lobuxoki obunye, olaziwa ngokuba ngumgaqo owenziwe ngomthetho Khiencasmall [] [ifom]], ukuba umntu uvavanywe ngenxa yezenzo ezininzi ezibangela izenzo ezifanayo, ukugweba kwazo zonke iityala ngaphandle kokuba ityala ngalinye linento eyahlukene. Esi simo sesohlwayo esifanayo esifanayo esifanayo.

Australia: ukhuseleko oluphindiweyo lwengozi e-Australia lufumaneka kumthetho oqhelekileyo nakummiselo, kunye namanye amazwe avumela ukwenziwa kolwaphulo-mthetho olunzulu ngobungqina obutsha. INkundla ePhezulu yase-Australia igqibe ukuba nokuba isenzo esinye singulwaphulo-mthetho ezimbini, ummangalelwa akanako ukohlwaywa kabini ngenxa yehambo enye ngaphandle kokuba indlu yomthetho icebe ngenye indlela. Oku kuyimfuneko kumphathi we-'''''''''''' .' . umenurburg'r' usondela, kodwa iinkundla zase-Australia zijolise iliso kwi-cicicicie jo kumthetho oqhelekileyo.

Le mizekelo ithelekisa ibonisa ukuba nangona amaxabiso asisiseko ekho jikelele, ubuchule bomthetho buyahluka. I-United States ibalasele ngokwahlukana kwayo okungqongqo kwengozi ephindwe kabini (intambo yokubulala) kunye nesohlwayo esiphindiweyo (umlinganiselo wokubhaliswa kwetyala), kunye nokungaqiniseki kwayo kwenjongo yomthetho.

Isiphelo

Unxulumano phakathi kwengozi ephindwe kabini nemfundiso yesohlwayo esiphindiweyo luyisakhiwo esinengcebiso ekukhuseleni abamangalelwa kumatyala kumaxhoba karhulumente. Ingozi ephindwe kabini isebenza njengekhusi ekumangaleleni ngokuphindaphindiweyo, lo gama imfundiso yesohlwayo ephindwe kabini iqinisekisa ukuba naphakathi kwetyala elinye, urhulumente akanakubeka izigwebo ezizinzileyo ngaphaya koko kugwetyelwe okanye kujoliswe kuko. Nangona ezi mfundiso zombini zinokuvumelana ngomnombo omnye kwaye zisoloko zixhomekeke kuvavanyo olunye olusemthethweni khulger iziqalelo ezididi ezicacileyo zenkqubo yolwaphulo-mthetho]

Iinkundla kufuneka zisebenzise indlela entsonkothileyo yenjongo yemithetho, amatyala angenanayo, ukugweba, kunye nolawulo olubini ukuqinisekisa ukuba ummangalelwa ngamnye ufumana isivakalisi esifanelekileyo nesilungelelanisiweyo. Abamangalelwa abaqonda ezi nkcukacha bangayila impikiswano ezingcono zesohlwayo okanye ukuvavanya iziphumo ezingenakulinganiswa. Njengoko imigaqo yezaphuli-mthetho iqhubeka yandisa ngezityholo ezilayishwayo, imfuneko yokusetyenziswa ngokucacileyo nangokungaguquguqukiyo kwezi mfundiso ikhula kuphela.

Ukufunda okubhekele phaya, jonga i- Ushwankathelo olubini [[FLT:] kwi-Cornell Information , umbhalo we- Isigodo se-"Sotner v. United States (1932), kunye nohlalutyo lwe [FLT:] Missouri v. Hunter [19983][FL:5]. [Umbono othelekisa, jonga iSebe le- I-Canadiadiadious yemeko ye KGenethi ye K[FLT].