Isiseko Samandla Okugweba

Isebe lejaji lorhulumente wase-United States limi njengentsika yenkqubo yomgaqo-siseko, ejongene nembopheleleko enzima yokutolika uxwebhu olusekiweyo. Ngokungafaniyo namasebe owiso-mthetho kunye namasebe alawulayo, anokuphendula ngqo kubanyuli-mthetho, abagwebi besizwe bamiselwe ukuba baphile, bawakhusele kwiingcinezelo zobupolitika kwaye bawavumele ukuba abe ngabalawuli bomthetho. Le nkululeko ibalulekile ekuphumezeni indima yawo: ukusebenzisa umGaqo-siseko ekuxabaniseni, ukukhusela amalungelo omntu ngamnye, nokuqinisekisa ukuba akukho mthetho okanye inyathelo likarhulumente lingaphaya kwemidalelo yomthetho-siseko. Inkqubo yokutolika ingumsebenzi wobuGaqo-siseko, ifuna abagwebi ukuba balinganise umbhalo, imbali, imbali, kunye nempembelelo. Ukuqonda indlela eziqhuba ngayo ezi nkundla zomthetho wolawulo lwe-demokhrasi.

Isakhiwo Sesebe Eligwebayo

Ijaji yaseMerika yinkqubo entsonkothileyo yeenkundla zikarhulumente nezorhulumente. Kumgangatho worhulumente, umGaqo-siseko umisa iNkundla ePhakamileyo kwaye unika amandla eNkundla ePhakamileyo ukuba imise iinkundla ezisezantsi. Namhlanje, oku kuquka iinkundla zesithili ezingama- 94 (iinkundla zeenkundla zeenkundla zetyala), iinkundla zesiphaluka-mrhu zeenkundla ezili-13 zezibheno (iinkundla ze-intermediaste appelte), kunye neNkundla ePhakamileyo encotsheni. Iinkundla zezorhulumente zisingatha uninzi lwamatyala ngezantsi/ngaphezu kwama-90% kodwa iinkundla zikarhulumente zigqiba amatyala abandakanya umthetho karhulumente, umGaqo-siseko, okanye iimpikiswano phakathi kwamazwe. Inkundla ephakamileyo yenkundla yesikhululo zithetha ngetyala; iphula kuphela malunga ne-1% yeetyala eli-mali, zikhetha loo mibuzo ingulo ingulo ityala okanye iinkundla eziphantsi.

Ukufikelela ekutolikeni komGaqo-siseko

Akukho ndlela inye, eyamkelekileyo jikelele yokutolika umGaqo-siseko. Endaweni yoko, abagwebi nabaphengululi baye bavelisa iintanda-bulumko eziliqela ezahlukileyo ezikhokela uhlalutyo lwabo. Ezi ndlela zidla ngokukhokelela kwisigqibo ezahlukahlukeneyo ngentsingiselo yaloo migaqo yomgaqo-siseko.

Ubhalo

I-Textism igxininisa intsingiselo eqhelekileyo yamazwi omGaqo-siseko njengoko ayeza kuqondwa ngexesha lokudityaniswa. Abaxhasi, abanjengoJaji wamva uAntonin Scalia, baphikisa ngelithi abagwebi abafanele bajonge ngaphaya kombhalo ukuze bafumane iinjongo ezifihlakeleyo okanye iintsingiselo zokwenziwa. UmGaqo-siseko luxwebhu olubhaliweyo, kwaye amagama awo amele alawule. Umzekelo, [[FLT: 0] kumsebenzi we-Priciony. [FLT] [2001] [2001], iNkundla isebenzisa ukucacisa imibhalo ebhaliweyo ukuchaza ilungelo lesibini lokuHlazisela nokugcina izixhobo njengelungelo lomntu ngamnye, hayi nje elidityaniswe kwinkonzo ye-octive. Ngokufuthiweyo i-Disystemments ithetha ngokungqongqo kwi-mbhalo kodwa igxininisamgano yenkcamfo-mfono.

Ubuxoki

I-Syncism ifuna ukutolika umGaqo-siseko osekelwe kwintsingiselo yantlandlolo yoluntu ngexesha abamkela ngalo amalungiselelo awo. Le ndlela igubungela zombini intsingiselo yokuqala yombhalo (intsingiselo kawonke-wonke wokuqala) kunye namanye amaxesha iinjongo zokuqala zabaquluneli. UJaji Clarence Thomas ungoyena mbhali obalaseleyo. Inkcazo yendalo iphikisa ukuba le ndlela inika uzinzo kwaye ithintela abagwebi ekubekeni amaxabiso abo. Abahlalutyisi baphikisa ngelithi ubukho bokuqala bunokuba nzima ukuyisebenzisa, ingakumbi xa ubungqina bembali bungacacanga okanye xa umbhalo woMgaqo-siseko upheli uphelisiwe, njengomyalelo wesi-8 weSihlalo somthetho ohlaziweyo womthetho womthetho womthetho womthetho owenziwe ngowamasikizi.

UmGaqo-siseko Ophilayo

Ngokwahlukileyo koko, “umGaqo-siseko ophilayo” ujonga uxwebhu njengolwakheko olunamandla olumele lulungelelanise nokutshintsha izithethe zentlalo, ubugcisa, kunye neemeko. Le ntanda-bulumko yafumana udumo kwinkulungwane yamashumi amabini, ingakumbi kwiimeko ezifana Brown v. Ibhodi yemfundo[ [1954], ekholelwa ukuba umahluko wobuhlanga kwizikolo zasekuhlaleni waphula iSikhuseli esiPhakamileyo uClausle, nangona abalawuli be- 149th IsiHlamjiji-jiso bengajongi ukuvukela i-mgatya. Abameli baphikisa ukuba ukutolika okuqinileyo kuya kwenza umGaqo-siseko ungabi namsebenzi kwiingxaki zangoku. Abagxeki bethi ayinaso isiseko somgaqo somgaqo-siseko kwaye ibeka iingozi kwimiqathango-mthetho.

Ukunganyaniseki Nokulinganisa Iimvavanyo

Abanye abagwebi bathatha indlela elula, baqwalasela iziphumo ezisebenzayo zesigqibo. Oku kusoloko kubandakanya ukulungelelanisa izilangazelelo ezikhuphisanayo . njengokufumana ukhuseleko lwesizwe kunye nelungelo lomntu ngamnye .ukufikelela kwisiphumo esisengqiqweni. IJaji uStephen Breyer isoloko isebenzisa le ndlela, ivavanya oothunywashe abafana nenjongo yomthetho, iziphumo zehlabathi zokwenene, kunye nokuzibekela phantsi kwiinkqubo zedemokhrasi. Ngoxa i-pragmatism ikhokelele kwizisombululo ezibhetyekayo, isenokuvelisa ukungacinezelwa ukuba ngabagwebi bacinga izinto ngobuchule obungaguquguqukiyo.

Imfundiso Yenkwenkwezi Iyachaphaza

IStarle decisis [1] i-Latin ethetha “ukuma ngokwezinto ezigqityweyo” yikona yembombo yomthetho oqhelekileyo waseMelika. Ifuna ukuba iinkundla zilandele imizekelo emiselwe zizigqibo zangaphambili ngaphandle kokuba kukho isizathu esinyanzelisayo sokuzibhukuqa. Lo mgaqo ukhuthaza uzinzo, ukuqikelelwa, kunye nentlonelo kwi Justicari. Noko ke, iNkundla ePhakamileyo ilawule imiqathango yayo kwimiba yendalo, njenge [[FLT:] brown v.[FLT][FF: 1] [FF:] kunye ne-assion.[10] iinvos.[10] iinvos.[10] ingunyuko olukhoyo.[FFFFF.[10]

Uphawu lwetyala eliphakamileyo leNkundla noMphumezo wayo

Indlela iNkundla Ephakamileyo ewuchaza ngayo umGaqo-siseko iye yatshintsha phantse zonke iinkalo zobomi baseMerika. Amatyala ambalwa abalulekileyo abonisa amandla anzulu okuhlola isigwebo.

Marbury v. Madison[[FL:1] (103)

Eli tyala lamisela umgaqo wokuhlola okugwebayo,(-) igunya leenkundla lokuvakalisa imithetho engekho mgaqweni. Ebhalela iNkundla, uMgwebi omkhulu uJohn Marshall waqiqa ngelithi umGaqo-siseko ngumthetho ophakamileyo welizwe yaye liphondo lejaji ukuchaza oko umthetho ukuko. Esi sigqibo saxhasa indima yeNkundla njengesebe elilinganayo kwaye sihlala siyityala lesiseko lokutolika komgaqo-siseko.

Brown v. Ibhodi yemfundo (1954)

Kwisigqibo esingqineke kunye, iNkundla yathi imithetho yesizwe yokumisela izikolo zikawonke-wonke ezihlukeneyo zabafundi abaMnyama nabamhlophe yayaphula i-Uncil Protection Claus. IJaji enkulu u-Earl Warren yabhala ukuba “izakhiwo zemfundo ezihlukeneyo azilingani ngokwemvelo.” Isigqibo salandula imfundiso e-“ehlukeneyo kodwa elinganayo” kwi Phoney v. Ferguson wathembela kubungqina benzululwazi obungokwenzululwazi malunga neziphumo zengqondo ze-linye i-ROCM BROB] [FLT] [FLT]] wabonisa indlela ephilayo yokufikelela kwiNkusebenza, njengoko iNkuhlalo ye-1455 Demetrition kulwazi lokulingana.

[[UMTL: 0] New York Times Co. v. United States (1971]

Ityala likaPopu libizwa ngokuba “yiPentagon Papers”, iNkundla yakwala ukuzama komphathi weNixon ukuvala ukupapashwa kwamaxwebhu ahlulweyo. INkundla yathi urhulumente akakhange ahlangabezane noxanduva olunzima olufunekayo ngaphambi kokuba athintelwe phantsi koLawulo Lokuqala loMphetho-Mdambi. Esi sigqibo sakhuthaza ukuphenjelelwa ngamandla kokuchaswa kwemithetho yocalulo kunye nokubaluleka komatshini wokushicilela okhululekileyo kwidemokhrasi.

[[FLT: 0] Obergefell v. Hodges (2015)

Kwisigqibo esingu-5-44, iNkundla yathi ukuHlakulelwa kweMimiselo yeMigaqo-nkqubo yeshumi elinesine kufuna iimeko zemvume nokuqaphela imitshato engokwabelanayo. Uluvo lukaJaji Anthony Kennedy oluninzi lwagxininisa isidima sezibini ezifanayo ezingokwabelana ngokwesini kunye nelungelo elisisiseko lokutshata. Ityala lixhomekeke kumgca wemfihlo kunye nenkululeko, kuquka i-Laving v. Virginia [1967]) (ukuphelisa ukuva umlomo kumtshato osuliweyo we-RGOLT). Obergeye wawisa ubuchule obunamandla bokucaciswa komgaqo womgaqo womgaqo womgaqo-mthetho-siseko kwimpendulo kwimigalelo-ntlalo-ntle.

Dobbs v. Jackson Amanani aQueqesho lwezempilo [202]

I-overrung [[NTL:0] Rooe kunye ne-[FLT]]. INkundla yathi umGaqo-siseko awuniki lungelo lokuqhomfa. Ibhalela uSamuel Alto uvavanyo lwembali nolokulungisa, iphikisa ukuba amalungelo okuqhomfa ayengasekelwenga nzulu kwimbali yohlanga. Isigqibo sibuyisela umba wengxoxo yesizwe ecacileyo, sibangela ukuba impikiswano ecacileyo ngomthetho, amalungelo amabhinqa, nendima efanelekileyo yeNkuhlalo. [[FLT]] Dobs ibonise indlela eguqukela ngayo kwi-ntanda-bulumko yezomthetho.

Inkcazelo Engokomthetho: Indlela Iinkundla Ezifunda Ngayo Imithetho

Ngaphandle kwamatyala omgaqo-siseko, iinkundla zisoloko zitolika imimiselo edluliswa yiNgqungquthela kunye neendlu zowiso-mthetho zikarhulumente. Iindlela zokutolika imithetho zibonakalisa indlela efikelela ngayo kodwa zigxininisa kwiinjongo zowiso-mthetho nolwimi.

Umthetho Ongqalileyo Okanye Ocacileyo

Iinkundla ziqala ngentsingiselo ecacileyo yamazwi ommiselo. Ukuba ulwimi lucacile kwaye lucacile, abagwebi balusebenzisa njengoko kubhaliwe, ngaphandle kokukhangela kwimithombo engaphandle njengembali yowiso-mthetho. Lo mthetho uhlonela umgaqo wokuba iCongress (okanye indlu yowiso-mthetho karhulumente) ichaza injongo yayo ngokubhaliweyo. Umzekelo, United States v. Ron Pinector Enprises [1999], iNkuNkundla yasebenzisa ulwimi olucacileyo lomthetho wokubhaliswa kwemali ebhangiweyo, ingavumi ukuqwalasela impikiswano.

Indlela Efanelekileyo Yokufikelela

Xa umbhalo udida, iinkundla zingayiqwalasela injongo yommiselo. Le ndlela ijonge ingxaki eyafunwa yindlu yowiso-mthetho ukunikela idilesi kunye neenjongo ezimisele ukufikelela kuzo. IJaji Breyer isoloko igxininisa injongo yombhalo njengesikhokelo. Icawa kaBathathu Engcwele v. United States [1892], iNkundla ePhakamileyo yayibambelele kumthetho onqabela nabani na ekuncediseni ukuthunyelwa komntu wasemzini phantsi kwesivumelwano ayizange isebenze kumfundisi wecawa, ngenxa yokuba injongo yeBhunga yayikuphelisa umsebenzi ophantsi kwemiqathango yaseMelika.

Ukufikelela Kombhalo

Iinkundla zisoloko zihlola ummiselo wobume bomthetho bonke, kuquka imigaqo enxulumene nayo, imbali yowiso-mthetho, kunye nesakhiwo sesenzo. Uluhlu lwencwadi lusebenzisa isolis (igama eliyaziwa ngamaqabane ayo”) linceda abagwebi bagqibe intsingiselo ngokujonga amagama angqongileyo. Umzekelo, ukuba umthetho uyalwalela “iizixhobo, izibharji, nezinye izixhobo,” ibinzana elithi“ ezinye izixhobo” zizakulinganiselwa kwizinto ezifana nezibham kunye nezibham (i., imibhobho), hayi ukuquka imipu okanye imilobhobho.

Indima Ebalulekileyo Yempinda Yogwebo

Uhlolo lwezeejaji ngamandla eenkundla okwandisa imithetho kunye nezenzo zolawulo ezichasene nomGaqo-siseko. Eli gunya alichazwanga ngokucacileyo kumGaqo-siseko kodwa lanikwa ityala njenge-check efunekayo kwamanye amasebe. Ubuchule beNkundla Ephakamileyo bokubetha izenzo zombutho busisixhobo esinamandla sokugcina ukwahlulwa kwamandla nokukhusela amalungelo amancinane.

Uhlolo lwezeejaji lusebenza kwimigangatho emininzi. Iinkundla zoManyano zingahlola yomibini imithetho karhulumente nekarhulumente yomgaqo-siseko. ISupremacy Claus iqinisekisa ukuba xa umthetho wesizwe ungqubana nomthetho karhulumente, umthetho wesizwe uyaphumelela, yaye ukhutshwa ngezantsi. Iinkundla zikarhulumente zikwaqhelisela uhlalutyo lwemithetho karhulumente phantsi komgaqo-siseko wazo, onokuthi unikeze ukhuseleko olubanzi kunomGaqo-siseko wesizwe.

Ukuqheliselwa kohlolo lomthetho akuzenzekeli. Iinkundla zifuna ukuba iqela elimiyo ukuze lizise ityala, kwaye ziyakuphepha ukukhupha iimbono zobuxoki. “umzekelo okanye impikiswano” efunekayo yeQumrhu III iqinisekisa ukuba iinkundla zigqiba iimpikiswano zokwenene, hayi imibuzo yokuqikelelwa. Oku kuthintela kulondoloza indima yejaji njengomchasi-mthetho ongenzi nto kunokuba umxhasi wenkqubo yenkcubeko.

Iingxaki Nokugxekwa Kwenkcazelo YomGaqo-siseko

Inkqubo yokutolika umGaqo-siseko izaliswe bubunzima. Abahlalutyi bathi abagwebi, ingakumbi abagwebi beNkundla Ephakamileyo, ngokungenakuphepheka bafaka imilinganiselo yabo yobuqu kwizigqibo, behlisa ukubekek'ityala kwedemokhrasi. Le nkqubo yokuziqinisekisa iye yakhula ngokukhula, yaye ii-mineine zisoloko zingavumi ukuphendula imibuzo ethile ngemibandela ephikisanayo. Ngaphezu koko, isigqibo sokunika isibeleko (uve ityala) sinika iNkundla ukulawula okuqinileyo kwemithetho yesizwe.

Ukungavisisani Nokungavisisani

UmGaqo-siseko uqulethe amabinzana abanzi ``inkqubo ebanzi','.' "ikhuselwa ngokulinganayo,”“ i-crunel kunye nento engaqhelekanga”" efuna ukutolikwa. Yintoni ebangela “uphendlo olungenangqiqo kunye nokuxhuzula”? Liyintoni“ ilungelo labantu lokuphatha nokuphatha izixhobo”? Abagwebi abahlukeneyo abasebenzisa iindlela ezahlukeneyo bangafikelela kwiimpendulo ezidibeneyo. Le synclufixel yimbonakalo, hayi isiphene; abasebenzi benqanawa basebenzisa ngabom ulwimi olubhetyebhetyebhetheza ukuvumela umGaqo-siseko unyamezele.

Ukutshintsha Izithethe Zasebuthweni

Njengoko isimo sengqondo sikawonke-wonke sitshintsha, ingcinezelo iNkundla iphinda ijongene nemizekelo emidala. Ukuvunywa komtshato ongokwabelana ngesondo, ukuvalwa komtshato, namalungelo amabhinqa ahlukeneyo konke kwavela kangangamashumi eminyaka eenguqu zentlalo. Noko ke, abahlalutyi baphikisa ngelithi iNkundla ayifanele ibe “yinkcaso enzima” enyanzelisa imilinganiselo emitsha kuluntu olumelanayo. Ingxoxo engokwahlulelwa kwemithetho ngokuchasene nezenzo zomthetho iyaqhubeka ingundoqo kwintetho yemithetho.

Iingcinezelo Zezobupolitika Nomthetho

Ukufaneleka kweNkundla ePhakamileyo kuxhomekeke ekuthembekeni kwabantu. Iingxelo zibonisa ukuba ukuthemba uluntu kwiNkundla kuye kwancipha kwiminyaka yakutshanje, ngokwenxalenye ngenxa yokuqonda okwenziwa kwesigqibo sabathathi-nxaxheba. Ukungabikho kwemithetho engqongqo yemilinganiselo yokuziphatha yokugweba kubangele ukugxekwa, njengokuba impembelelo yamaqela angaphandle ngemiba eshwankathelweyo. Ukuqinisekisa inkululeko yeNkundla ngoxa igcina ityala kungumngeni oqhubekayo.

Ikamva Lokucaciswa KomGaqo-siseko

Xa ujonga phambili, ukutolikwa komGaqo-siseko kuza kuqhubeka kuguquka. Ukuqanjwa kweNkundla yangoku (ngoku nge-6-3-3 edla ngoludala) kuye kwakhokelela kwizigqibo zokuba amandla omxinwa olawulo lweziko lenqanawa, ukwandisa amalungelo emipu, nokumisela ukulungelelanisa. Ubugcisa obutsha, obufana nokuhlola kwamanani, ubukrelekrele obungeyo, kunye namajelo eendaba, buza kuvavanya iimfundiso ezikhoyo kwimfihlo, ukuthetha ngokukhululekileyo, kunye nenkqubo efunekayo. Ityala elibandakanya umthetho wemigangatho ye-intanethi, umlinganiselo weSine soMphengululo kumaxesha amanani, kwaye imida yamandla olawulo oluphezulu ngexesha longxamiseko iya kufika kwiNkuquluko.

Indima yeNkundla kwibutho labantu elihlukeneyo isenokutshintsha. Bambi abaphengululi baxhasa imida yegama okanye imithetho esesikweni yokubuyisela ukholo kwesi sakhiwo. Abanye bacela utshintsho lomgaqo-siseko ukuze kuchazwe amalungelo athile ngokucacileyo, kuncitshiswe ingqiqo yeNkundla. Kungakhathaliseki ukuba isiphi na isimbo, ukuqonda indlela iinkundla eziwuchaza ngayo umGaqo-siseko okusafuneka kubemi, kubafundi nakubafundisi.

Imfundo Yemibimbi Ekhuthazayo

Kubafundisi- ntsapho kunye noonjingalwazi, utoliko lomgaqo-siseko lunika ibala elityebileyo lengxoxo yaseklasini. Abafundi bangaqwalasela iimpikiswano zomlomo eziphezulu, bavavanye iinkcazelo ezikhuphisanayo, baze baxelise izigqibo zomthetho. Iprojekthi [[FLT: 0]Oyez inika ingcaciso efikelelekayo yemiba neentetho zempikiswano. [[FLT:] [FLT]]] IQultalgrate yolwazi [] Icandelo lolwazi [[FLT]]] Le mithetho ] [iiiiiicekthezi] esezantsi] inikeza iinkcazelo ezikhoyo zemithetho yomthetho nokwazisa ulwakhiwo-lu mthetho olunzulu.

Ngokubandakanyeka kwizigqibo eziphawula iziganeko zendalo kunye neendlela zokucacisa, abafundi bafunda ukuba umGaqo-siseko asiyonkcazelo eqandisiweyo kodwa yinkqubo ephilayo efuna ukusetyenziswa ngokufanelekileyo. Kwakhona bayayiqonda indima ebalulekileyo yejaji ekukhuseleni amalungelo nokulungelelanisa igunya lorhulumente. Kwidemokhrasi, ubumi obunolwazi buyeyona nto ikhuselekileyo ekuphangweni nasekukhukulisweni kwenkululeko esisiseko.

Ekugqibeleni, umsebenzi wesebe lejaji − quiet, studical, kwaye udla ngokuthandabuza--phinda-phinda-phinda-phinda-phinda-phindwayo . Ithetha indlela elizichaza ngayo imbali ilizwe ngokwezizukulwana. Enoba ngobuchule bokubhala okanye ngokuvumelana nomGaqo-siseko ophilayo, iinkundla ziqinisekisa ukuba olu hlanga luhlala luthembekile kwiinjongo zalo zokumiselwa kwalo ngoxa lucombulula iingxaki zehlabathi eliguqukayo.