Imfundiso Yomahluko: Ushwankathelo Lwesiseko

Ukufakwa kwamalungelo karhulumente ngoMphetho-Mgaqo-nkqubo weshumi elinesine wesiNgqomo seNgqomo yeNkcubeko yeNtshona Koloni. Ngaphambi kokuba kuqaliswe uHlaziyo lweMiqathango yeshumi elinesine ngo1868, iBhili yamaLungelo yasebenza kurhulumente wesizwe kuphela. Oorhulumente banyanzelwa kuphela yimithetho-siseko nemithetho yabo. Ukupheliswa kweSicwangciso soMkhosi somthetho neSimiselo sikaNoteko-Ethelekelelo u-Celas kwatshintsha okokuba amandla, kodwa inkqubo echanileyo apho amalungelo karhulumente amiselwe khona ngokunyanzeleka amazwe ngaphezu kwenkulungwane e-100 e-U.S. Inkundla ephakamileyo, kwaye, engundoqo, iqonde indlela iinkundla ezichaza ngayo ukuqulukwano-mthetho eziquluvolulo loburhulumente nenkululeko.

Ukuhlahlela akuyonto ilula ekundulukeni. Inkundla Ephakamileyo yamkela imfundiso ye ekhetha ukuququzelelwa , ithetha ukuba ilungelo ngalinye kwiBhili yamaLungelo kufuneka livavanywe ngokobuqu ukugqiba enoba “imfuno yokusesikweni yaseMerika." ukuba isebenza kumazwe ngokuchasene noHlaziyo lweMsebenzi ka-Dioncle we-149. Namhlanje, phantse zonke izikhuseli kwiBhili lamaLungelo ziququzelwe qhamrhu, ziquka inkululeko yokuqala yokuthetha, ukushicilela, kunye nonqulo; ukhuseleko lwesine lokuzikhusela nxamnye nokuziphazamisa okungekho ngqindilili; ukuchasana nokurhoxisana okungasekunene kokuzinzisa. Ulawulo oluthengwayo lwesithandathu luye lwarhoxisiwe kwimi, kunye nokunganisa imigaqo-e.

Kodwa iNkundla ePhakamileyo inika isiseko kuphela. Umsebenzi wokoqobo, wemini-namhla yokusebenzisa la malungelo adityanisiweyo uyenzeka kwiinkundla zikarhulumente. Abagwebi belizwe kufuneka bagqibe ukuba lingakanani ilungelo elithile lorhulumente elinwenwa phantsi komthetho karhulumente, ingakumbi xa imimiselo karhulumente inikela ukhuseleko olongezelelekileyo okanye xa ilandela umgaqo-nkqubo karhulumente udibene. Eli gunya linika iinkundla impembelelo enkulu kunamalungelo obomi obusekelwe kwimithetho-siseko. Kwinkcaciso enzulu yembali, bona [[[FLT: 0]] iCona igonoralgatelment Services yophation Services yoluendo lwenkonzo yeKhompyutha yolu.

Inkcazo Ebalulekileyo Kumsebenzi: Indlela Iinkundla Zelizwe Ezilusebenzisa Ngayo Uvavanyo

Xa inkundla yephondo ijongene netyala lokuba umthetho okanye isenzo sombuso siyaphula ilungelo eliqulethwe ngurhulumente, kufuneka kuqala kunqunyulwe ukuba ilungelo liye laququzelelwa ngokupheleleyo yiNkundla ePhakamileyo yase-U.S. Ukuba ikhotwe linendima echazayo: isebenza ngokufanayo iNkundla ePhakamileyo elawulayo kwityala likarhulumente. Noko ke, iNkundla ePhakamileyo isoloko ishiya igumbi elibalulekileyo kwiinkundla ezisezantsi ukuze iphuhlise umthetho. Umzekelo, kummandla we- Isinyuko soMnyuselo esiphambili sichaza ngokukhululekileyo[, iNkundla imisele iimfundiso ezibanzi ezifana nobundilele nesonko, kodwa ithe inkundla yasemthethweni ifanele isebenzise ezo mfundiso kwiinkqubo ezithile zomthetho okanye iikhowudi ze-yunivesithi.

Umzekelo wemeko: UMthetho Wokuqala Wokwenziwa Kwezimilo

Qwalasela ityala lenkundla yenkundla yephondo elibandakanya ukuqhankqalaza kwiyunivesithi yephondo. Inkundla ePhakamileyo yase-U.S. ithe amaqumrhu kawonke-wonke “ayindawo kawonke-wonke elungele ukusetyenziswa kwenkululeko yokuthetha” ngenjongo yokuzimela. Inkundla yephondo kufuneka igqibe ukuba imiqathango yeyunivesithi kwiqela lokuqhankqalazo yimiqathango yembono-yongamelangaphi na esengqiqweni. Kodwa inkundla isenokubona icandelo layo lomgaqo-mthetho wesigqeba, elithi kwamanye amazwe (njenge-California) linike inkxaso ebanzi kuneSinyuselo Sokuqala. Kwiimeko ezinjalo, iinkundla zelizwe zinokutolika imbono yemithetho elungele ukuqulusela imbono yorhulumente elungeleneyo, maxa lifikelela iziphumo ezahlukeneyo kunenkundla yesizwe esilawulayo phantsi kwezibakala.

Umzekelo Wemeko: UMthetho Wesine Wokwenziwa KwemiHlomelo Nokuphengululwa Kwabantu

Enye indawo exhaphakileyo kutoliko lwenkundla yenkundla yelizwe yi- uHlaziyo lweNguqu-mali lomyalelo wokungahloli ngaphaya kwamandla nokuxhwithwa. Inkundla ePhakamileyo iye yagqiba kwelokuba isiganeko sokuphengulula asifuni mvume, kodwa umlinganiselo wokuphengulula udibelwe kakhulu. Amazwe angayamkela imithetho yawo ebekelwe umqathango okanye achaze “uvavanyo olufanelekileyo lwemfihlo” olwahlukileyo. Umzekelo, ezinye iinkundla eziphakamileyo zibophelele ukuba umgaqo-siseko wesizwe umele ukuba umgaqo-siseko ufune isiqinisekiso segazi kwiimeko ze-DUI, nangona umthetho womthetho woburhulumente (ulandela umbangowama 2019). [[FLT:] ukhuseleko oluninzi.[F]

UmGaqo-siseko kaRhulumente njengoMthombo ozimeleyo waMalungelo

Mhlawumbi eyona nkalo ibalulekileyo yendlela iinkundla zikarhulumente ezitolika ngayo amalungelo karhulumente adityanisiweyo kukudlala nomthetho-siseko wesizwe. Umgaqo-siseko omninzi karhulumente uqulethe irejista yamalungelo anokukhuselwa izipili okanye ugqithe iBhili yamaLungelo karhulumente. Xa inkundla yesizwe igqiba ityala, ingaxhomekeka kuhlobo olusemthethweni (njengoko kuchazwe yiNkundla ePhakamileyo yase-U.S.) okanye kulungiselelo lomgaqo-mGaqo-siseko wesizwe. Ukuba ilungiselelo likarhulumente likhusela ngakumbi, inkundla inganika umthetho wokunceda ngaphandle kokufikelela kumbuzo karhulumente. Oku kwaziwazi ukuba ngumhlaba [[FLT.:0]]

Ukusetyenziswa komgaqo-siseko wesizwe kukhokelele ekunyukeni okubalulekileyo kweminye imimandla enjengemfundo, umtshato ongokwasemgangathweni (ngaphambi ] nomthetho wolwaphulo-mthetho. Umzekelo, kumthetho weSigqeba sezwe. .[FLT][19984] [iNkundla ePhakamileyo] [iNkundla e-OFLT]) ibambelele kwelokuba ityala eliphezulu lephondo le-Washington likhusele abemi be-ofele belizwe ekukhuseleni impahla yabo, nangona imfundiso yesiHlaziyisine yoMda engenziwangalelwanga ngexesha. Ngokunjalo, iNkuchaza ukukhuselwa kwemeko yaseNew York yezibheno kumelelo lwezoqoqosho olungagunyazwangagunyazinziswanga lukhuselwanga lulawulo lwe-Auniclasciod. [5] Isivumelwano esiluncedo se-Active-Octive-Activetion se-mon

Iingxaki Zangexesha Elidluleyo Kwinkundla Yokwahlula Iinkundla Zezoburhulumente

Indima ecacisayo yeenkundla zenkundla zikarhulumente iye yanempikiswano ngokukhethekileyo kwiminyaka yakutshanje malunga neembambano eziliqela ezishushu zebutoffi. Enye kusetyenziso lwe- Ukuhlaziywa koMphetho-mda [uMthetho] ekunene ukuba ugcine nokuphatha iingalo emva kwesigqibo seNkundla ePhakamileyo yama-20222] [[FLT]] iNew York State Rifle & Lamp; iPixomps Association v. [Bruten[FLT]]. Bruten wakholelwa ukuba iSecond Confection ekhusela ilungelo lokuphatha umlotshotsholo wesandla phambi kwabantu bonke, kwaye nawu womthetho wemilophu engoothe ngokomthetho wesizwe. Iinkundla zelizwe zisebenza ngoku lovavanyo lwembali, olungaphezulu “kumgangatho ophakathi kwerediyolitimedieding. umele ugqibe isigwebo somthetho ongowona umgaqo-othe ngokomthetho othe ngokomthetho othe ngokomthetho ongongowahlukeneyo, ofana nomthetho wokwayo.

Olunye ucelomngeni lululo [[FLT: 0] olulungele ukumiselwa kwelungelo lokuzimela wedwa kumongo wamalungelo okuqhomfa nawokuzala. Ngoxa iNkundla ePhakamileyo yase-U.S. ikwi- yamaDobs v. iJackson’s Health Organization[ [202] [202] [202]] ukulawulwa [[FLT]] [Roev v. kwaye ikholelwa ukuba uMgaqo-siseko woMgaqo-siseko awukhuseli kukhuselwa kulungiso olulungileyo, inkundla yelizwe ngoku yindawo yokuqala yemfazwe. Ezinye iinkundla zelizwe ziye zatolika umgaqo womthetho womthetho woburhulumente (ngokufuthi nyaka-onke, inguqulelo zendlela efanayo noluvoluvo lwamayokusetyenziswa kwenkqubo yolonwabo) ukuqhosa. Umzekelo ophakamileyo weNkamo lweNSty (ians) uG.

Inkqubo efanelekileyo namalungelo angaphantsi

Ukuqukwa kwamalungelo enkqubo e-actus. . "njengokuba ilungelo lokutshata, ilungelo lomzali, nelungelo lokulwala unyango-lonyango, kwaye kukwabonwa nakulawulo lwenkundla yezonyango. Inkundla ePhakamileyo yase-U.S. iqaphele ukuba ezi nkululeko zingundoqo zikhuselwe yi-STIOMCLE Clausse yeNkssion ye-1449. Kodwa iimfuno zala malungelo zisoloko zibekwa enkundleni yenkundla engokokuba kulawulo lwabantwana, imilinganiselo yezamayeza, kwaye ziphela ngesigqibo sobomi (umz., ilungelo lokufa, njengakwi-[FLT:]]] .[3] i-vFFOLT].[5] i-gnow'evis.[5] i-Foct.[f] kunye nemeko yoncedo lwe-okst syst: [f]][f]][f]

Umanyano nobulumko beNkundla yasebuRhulumenteni

Ubuchule beenkundla zikarhulumente bokutolika amalungelo adityanisiweyo ngokwahlukileyo kwiinkundla zesizwe buphawu lwe-American, hayi isiphene. Le nkqubo iyanyamezela ukuguquguquka okuthile ekukhuseleni amalungelo angaphaya kwemigca karhulumente, lo gama nje umgangatho karhulumente ugcinwa. Noko ke, eli qhinga alingokuba nako ukuchaza okuqulethweyo ngendlela engaphantsi komgangatho karhulumente. Umzekelo, urhulumente akanakukholelwa ukuba umthetho weSine woMgaqo-siseko awusebenzi ekupheliseni umgaqo onegunya ukuba iNkundla ePhakamileyo ikholelwa ngokucacileyo ukuba ikho. Kodwa amanqaku anokuthi anokuyitolika ngaphaya komgangatho worhulumente.

Umzekelo oqhelekileyo [[FLT: 0] isilumkiso sokukhupha isilumkiso [[FLT: 1]. INkundla ePhakamileyo yase-U.S. ibambelele kwelokuba ukuncinwa kwegunya ngaphandle ko imanda[] isilumkiso silophula ilungelo lokuLawula iSigqibo seSigqibo sokweNhla macala ngokubhekiselele ngokwesiqu sakho. Noko ke, iNkundla igqibelele ukuba ukwaphulwa ko [[FLT]] [FLT]] akufuni ngokuzenzekelayo ukucinezelwa kwamazwi ukuba nayiphi na enye into efunyenweyo ixhomekeke kumthetho womthetho womthetho-mthetho womthetho womthetho womthetho-siseko [[5] umgangatho ophezulu [[5], ngaphandle kokwaphula umthetho womthetho womthetho womthetho womthetho woburhulumente woburhulumente woburhulumente obuqhelekileyo]

Impembelelo Kukukhululeka Kwabantu Ngamnye Nakumhlaba Osemthethweni

Umphumo onyusiweyo wenkcazelo yenkundla yenkundla yeli lizwe unzulu. Ngenxa yokuba iinkundla zeli lizwe zisingatha inkoliso yamatyala angokwamakhaya nawamatyala eUnited States, zingabanyanzeli abaphambili bamalungelo omgaqo-siseko worhulumente njengoko esetyenziswa kubadlali bakarhulumente nakummandla. Ummi okholelwa ukuba amalungelo akhe okuthetha ngenkululeko aphulwe ngumthetho wesixeko ngokuqinisekileyo oya kuchaza oko kuthethwa yinkundla yephondo, hayi inkundla yezorhulumente, ngenxa yokuba iinkundla zephondo zilinganiselwe kwaye zifuna impikiswano karhulumente engaphelelanga nje. Ngenxa yoko, iinkundla zeli lizwe zichaza ngokuthe ngqo intsingiselo yemihla ngemihla yeyokuQoQo, Eyesine, eyeSihlanu, eyeSithandathu, neyesi-8 yezongadibini.

Ngaphezu koko, ukucaciswa kwenkundla yeli lizwe kungaphembelela iNkundla ePhakamileyo yase-U.S. Xa inkundla ephakamileyo yephondo ifikelela kwisigqibo esinesizathu esihle kwimbambano yomthetho-siseko karhulumente, inokuba ligunya elinamandla kwiNkundla ePhakamileyo. Kwezinye iimeko, ukutolikwa kwenkundla yezobugcisa kunokubangela ukuba iNkundla ePhakamileyo iphinde ihlolisise imfundiso yayo. Umzekelo, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yaseCalifornia ifikelele kwisigqibo v.Andersonson [1272] ibambe isigwebo sokufa sisithi isigwebo setyala sichasene nomthetho karhulumente wenkohlakalo okanye isohlwayo engaqhelekanga sinegalelo kwingxoxo yesizwe eyathi ekugqibeleni yakhokelela kwi-FLT.[FLD] Firman. v[FFF:][3][12]

Ukumisela Ulwalamano Phakathi Korhulumente Nomthetho Womanyano

Kubafundi bezomthetho, abagwebi, nabafundi bomthetho, beqonda indlela iinkundla zeli lizwe eziwatolika ngayo amalungelo aqukayo kufuneka uhlalutyo locoselelo lomthetho wesizwe nomthetho womgaqo-siseko. Olona qheliselo lulungileyo kukuphikisana kolunye umgaqo-siseko: okokuqala, ukuba ilungelo eliqulethwe ngurhulumente lifuna isiphumo esithile; okwesibini, ukuba umgaqo-siseko unikela ukhuseleko olunye okanye olungaphezulu. Iinkundla zeli lizwe zidla ngokuxabisa uhlalutyo olubini ngolu hlobo kuba ziluchasa umgangatho ophezulu karhulumente ngoxa zivuma ulawulo lukarhulumente.

Umlinganiselo omnye obalulekileyo yimfundiso yemigaqo ye- yokuzimela. Xa inkundla yesizwe igqibile umba womgaqo-siseko wesizwe kwimeko ethile, eso sigqibo sisenokuba nesiphumo esiququzelekileyo kamva kwilixa lokubekwa kwetyala (kokubini kwiinkundla zikarhulumente kunye nezolawulo) phantsi kwemithetho yeSivumelwano epheleleyo kunye nesithethe somthetho wephondo. Noko ke, ukuba inkundla yorhulumente ixhomekeke ngokupheleleyo kumthetho wesizwe yaye ayigqibangamiselanga mbambano karhulumente, ngoko ke ityala lisenokubekwa kwakhona kwinkundla yorhulumente yorhulumente. Olu khetho lubalulekileyo ludla ngokuphikisana phakathi kwamalungelo amakhaya: nokuba izisa isenzo sephondo okanye ukulishwampukuko kwenkundla yenkundla yokuqala phantsi kwetyala.

Ukuze ufunde ngokubhekele phaya ngendlela iinkundla zikarhulumente eziwabumba ngayo amalungelo karhulumente, bona inqaku leMelika Bar Association elingeenkundla zorhulumente kunye norhulumente kunye nocalucalulo lweBhili yamaLungelo ne-PUT].

Isiphelo: Indima Ehlala Ihleli Iinkundla Zelizwe

Iinkundla zelizwe azingootampu nje zerabha ukuze zimisele umzekelo worhulumente. Zizizichazi ezinamandla zamalungelo aququzelelwayo, zisebenzisa umgwebo ozimeleyo malunga nentsingiselo kunye nobungakanani bamalungelo asisiseko. Izigqibo zazo zibonisa inkcubeko engokwasemthethweni, imbali, namaxabiso elizwe ngalinye, ngoxa zisaqinisekisa ukuba akukho rhulumente uphantsi komgaqo wenkululeko karhulumente. Ukuququzelelwa kwamalungelo orhulumente ngeSihlaziyo se-14 seMbetho-Mdali kuyenze iBhili yamaLungelo uxwebhu oluphilayo kwindlu nganye yenkundla yenkundla. Ngokuqonda indlela iinkundla zelizwe eziwujonga ngayo lo msebenzi, abafundi kunye nabenzi bezomthetho-orhulumente abanoxabiso, abalungele ukuqwalaselwa, kunye nokwakhiwa komthetho womthetho-Melika.

Xa kuvela imingeni emitsha — ukusuka kumalungelo okuzala ukuya kumalungelo emipu ngezantsi kwemiqathango yemipu — iinkundla zomthetho ziza kuqhubeka zingabatoliki abaphambili ngoko kuthethwa ngumGaqo-siseko. Imigwebo yazo iya kubumba kungekuphela nje amalungelo abantu abakwimida yabo kodwa kwanengxoxo ebanzi yorhulumente ngentsingiselo yenkululeko kwidemokhrasi eyahlukeneyo.