Ukuqonda ingcamango esemthethweni yokuzikhusela kwimizila yezomthetho kubalulekile ekuqondeni indlela inkqubo yomthetho ekhusela ngayo amaqumrhu karhulumente ekumangalelweni. Iindidi ezimbini eziphambili zikhona: ukhuseleko lolawulo lomntu kunye nokhuseleko lolawulo lwesizwe. Ngoxa zombini ezi zikhuselweyo zivela kwimiqathango eyahlukeneyo, zisebenza kwiiziko ezizimeleyo, kwaye zisebenza phantsi kolawulo olukhethekileyo. Lo mahluko uneziphumo ezinzulu kubantu abafuna ukuba abadlali bakarhulumente baphendule kwaye balungelelanise amandla phakathi kwegunya lorhulumente norhulumente. Kweli nqaku, sihlolisisa imvelaphi, imimiselo, kunye nokurhoxabana kwemithetho elawulayo, ukulungiselela ukhokelo olubanzi lwezifundiswa ngomthetho, abafundi, nabani nabani na onomdla kulawulo lukarhulumente eUnited States.

Yintoni Umanyano Olungalawulekiyo?

Isiseko somthetho wokukhusela ukhuseleko yimfundiso ethintela oorhulumente ukuba bangamangalelwa ngaphandle kwemvume yabo. Ilandela imvelaphi yabo ukuya kumthetho oqhelekileyo wamaNgesi, apho isibhengezo esithi "uKumkani akanakwenza nto ephosakeleyo" iisuti ezivalelweyo kwiSihlalo. Emva kweMvukelo yaseMerika, iUnited States yamkela lo mgaqo, kodwa yawuguqula ukuze ulungelelanise inkqubo yolawulo lwamazwe apho ulawulo lwahlulwe phakathi korhulumente wesizwe namazwe. Le mfundiso ibonisa ingcamango yokuba urhulumente, njengomthombo womthetho, akamele athotyelwe kwinkqubo eqhelekileyo yokugweba ngaphandle kokuba izinikele ngokuzithandela kuyo. Ekuhambeni kwexesha, iinkundla kunye nemithetho yowiso-mthetho ikhuthulo ikhutshiwe ngaphandle kokuthintela ukungabikho kokungekho sikweni, kodwa umgaqo ongundoqo uhleli: ukhuseleko lungumqobo wokungagqibeleli ekuchaseni korhulumente.

EUnited States, ukukhusela ukuma kokhuseleko oluzimeleyo kusebenza kumgangatho wesizwe nowaserhulumenteni, kodwa ngomahluko obalulekileyo. Ukhuselo lwezoburhulumente lukhusela urhulumente waseUnited States, abameli bakhe, kunye nabaphathi bakhe abasebenza kubuchule babo obusemthethweni. Ukukhusela urhulumente kukhusela amazwe ngamanye, amasebe, namagosa karhulumente. Ukudlala phakathi kwezi zigodlo kuphakamisa imibuzo entsonkothileyo malunga nokuba nini kwaye apho ummangalelwa angaphuma khona kwiqumrhu. Ukuqonda umahluko ubalulekile ngenxa yokufumaneka konyango − kunye nobuchule bokuzikhusela kwimibutho apho anokuqhutyelwa khona, okanye axhomekeke khona kusini na ekubeni umtshutshisiwa ngurhulumente okanye ngurhulumente.

Umanyano lweRhulumente

Ukhuseleko olulawulayo lwesizwe lusekelwe ngokuyintloko kuMgaqo-siseko weshumi elinesithoba (1793), apho iNkundla yafumana khona imvume yokuba ummi waseMzantsi Caroline, wagunyaziswa ngo-1795. Ukulungisa kwaba yimpendulo engqalileyo kwisigqibo seNkundla ePhakamileyo IChohoolm v. Georgia[ [1793] [iiSithintelo], apho iNkuko yeNkuhlalo yalenze ukuba ummi waseMzantsi Koloni angene kwinkundla yesizwe. Inkundla emiselweyo yalenza ukuba kungenelwe ngokukhawuleza ityala le nkundla ephakamileyo. I-Geneganethi yesizwe iphinde iphononongwe ngenye i-United States okanye i-Proviesces, okanye i-Advecegoverse, okanye i-Advences, okanye i-Advement, i-United States.

Nangona umbhalo weA111 Demendment uthe ngqo uluvo lwemivalo kuphela efunekayo ngabemi abangahlaliyo, iNkundla ePhakamileyo iwutolike njengomgaqo obanzi wokhuseleko lombuso. Phantsi kolu toliko, amazwe adla ngokukhuselwa kwiisuti eziziswa ngabemi bawo kwinkundla yephondo, kwaye kwanakwiisuti enkundleni karhulumente ngaphandle kokuba urhulumente uyavuma. Le mfundiso inikezelwe ukukhusela abameli kunye nezibonelelo ezithathwa njengee"izixhobo zikarhulumente."

Izahlulelo Ezikhethekileyo Kulawulo Oluphezulu Lwelizwe

Nangona ububanzi bayo, ukhuseleko oluphezulu lukarhulumente aluphelelanga. Iindidi eziliqela ezibalulekileyo zivumela ukumangalelwa kwamagosa karhulumente ukuba kuqhubekele kumaphondo okanye kumagunya karhulumente:

  • Umngeni: Urhulumente angaluphelisa ngokuzithandela ukhuseleko lwayo lobulawuli ngokuvuma ukufanelekela. Ama-waiver angachazwa `ngolwimi lwe-statory' okanye umgaqo-siseko wezwe' ochazwayo, nangona iinkundla zingamathidala ukufumana abachazi-mthetho abachaphazelekayo. Amazwana amaninzi aye amisela izenzo ezivumela iintlobo ezithile zolwaphulo-mthetho nxamnye norhulumente, ngokufuthi zibekwe kwiimfuno zomthetho zomthetho kunye neentambo zomonakalo.
  • Ingqungquthela isenokuthi, kwiimeko ezithile, ikongamela ukhuseleko lombuso ngokugqithisa umthetho ogunyazisa iisuti nxamnye namazwe. Noko ke, eli gunya lilinganiselwe kwimithetho ewiswe phantsi kweCandelo 5 loMmiselo weshumi elinesine, apho iBhunga linyanzela amalungelo omgaqo-siseko. USITIOLE FURC of Florida v. Florida [1966], iNkuNkundla Ephakamileyo ibambelele kwelokuba iNkundla ephakamileyo ayinako ukuthintelwa kwemeko yesizwe echasene nemithetho yeGqikelelo kusetyenziswa amagunya ayo (umz. Clast Claus).
  • Izicwangciso ezichasene nomthetho wezwe (Enye imfundiso encinci): Inkundla ePhakamileyo kwi Ex nxenyee Young (08) imisele ukuba isuti echasene norhulumente wegosa elijongene nomthetho ocetyiweyo ukuphelisa ukwaphulwa komthetho karhulumente ayithathwa njengelungelo elichasene norhulumente ngokwawo. Oku kucalucalula abalawuli bavumela ukuba bavavanye izenzo zombuso ngaphandle kokuqhuba ulawulo loMbeko weshumi elinesithoba kwishumi elinesibhozo. Igosavezi siqwalaselwe njengomntu otheliwe wabucala ogqithe okanye ogunya lakhe elisemthethweni.
  • Izithintelo Ngaphantsi kwemithetho ekhethekileyo yoManyano: Imimiselo ethile karhulumente igunyazisa ngokucacileyo iisuti nxamnye namazwe. Umzekelo, amaMelika anoMthetho (ADA) okhubazekayo kunye noMthetho weNtsapho kunye noMcimbi weNkundla (FMLA) utolikiwe kwintelekelelo yemeko ethile ekhethekileyo, nangona umlinganiselo uncitshiswe zizigqibo zenkundla eziPhakathi.

Ukhuseleko olulawulayo lwelizwe luyaqhubeka luyindawo ephezulu yomthetho. Ukuze unyuke nzulu kumatyala akutshanje oLawulo lweshumi elinesine, bona [[FLT: 0] Cornell I-Gradition Institute of the 11th Amendment [[FLT: 1]].

Umanyano loLawulo oluPhezulu

Ngokungafaniyo nokhuseleko lomgaqo-siseko, olune-ankile ethile ekhethekileyo kuMphetho-Mgaqo-siseko weshumi elinesi-11, ukukhusela ulawulo lorhulumente yimfundiso eqhelekileyo yomthetho esekelwe kwisithethe samaNgesi. INkundla ePhakamileyo yase-U.S. ivumile ukuba urhulumente wesizwe akanakumangalelwa ngaphandle kwemvume yakhe, umgaqo ohlala uqinile ngaphandle kokuba iBhunga lithekile. Lo mgaqo wokoqobo unwebela urhulumente ngokwawo kodwa kwanabasemaqulungwini nabasebenzi abasebenza kwimisebenzi yabo esemthethweni.

Imfundiso yokuzikhusela ekuzilawuleni akuphelelanga. Ekuhambeni kwexesha, iNgqungquthela iye yamisela imithetho emininzi yokuba ilahle imigaqo ekhethekileyo yokukhusela ukuma kwamatyala, ngaloo ndlela ivumela abantu ukuba bamangalele urhulumente. Abanye abathathi-nxaxheba ababalulekileyo baquka:

  • Umthetho we Tucker (1887): Lo mthetho ukhulula ukhuseleko lwezoburhulumente kwizinto ezichasene ne-United States ngokusekelwe kumGaqo-siseko, kwimithetho yesizwe, kwimigaqo yolawulo, okanye kwizivumelwano zikarhulumente. UMthetho weTucker unika igunya kwiNkundla yoManyano yemali engaphezulu kwe-100,000, kunye nenkundla yephondo ezithelekisayo kwi-$10. Noko ke, u-Tuckerket akawakhi umgaqo wegunya-gunya-mthetho, okanye i-odobookethi ye-om, inika nje ulawulo apho sele ekhona.
  • UMthetho weFederal Tort Apentiers (FTCA) (1946): IFTCA imodefices commoneral jovess xa itort ithetha ukuba ivela kwizenzo zentembeko okanye eziphosakeleyo zabasebenzi bezwe abasebenza ngexesha lomsebenzi wabo. Ivumela abasebenzi abachaphazelekayo ukuba banyuse i-United States ngenxa yomonakalo wobuqu, umonakalo wempahla, okanye ukufa okuphosakeleyo phantsi kweemeko apho umntu wobuqu anokubekwa phantsi komthetho karhulumente. IFCA iquka iindleko ezininzi, ezifana nokuvuka komsebenzi womkhosi, ezinye ii-ejongth kwi-erts, kunye nemisebenzi yengqiqo.
  • Amanye amaGama akwimithetho ekwalathiswayo: iBhunga elithintelweyo kuluhlu oluninzi lwemisebenzi ethile, kuquka ukuzithethelela phantsi koMthetho wamanzi acocekileyo, uMthetho weMigangatho we-Fair Labor, kunye noMthetho we-Amfistiki. Ukongeza, imfundiso ivumela iintambo ngokuchasene nabaphathi bolawulo lwamaqumrhu kwimpangalamrhu, nangona iNkundla isandula ukulinganisela ulwando lwayo.

Iinkalo ezingundoqo zoLawulo oluPhakathi

Ukhuselo olulawulayo lwezokhuselo lwesizwe lusebenza ngokwahlukileyo kukhuseleko lombuso kwiinkalo ezininzi. Okokuqala, umthombo wokhuseleko asikokupheliswa komgaqo-siseko kodwa kunomgaqo oqhelekileyo womthetho othi umlawuli akanakumangalelwa ngaphandle kwemvume yakhe. Okwesibini, abathinteli benkqubo yokhuseleko lorhulumente phantse basoloko beyimicimbi esesikweni kwaye kufuneka babe "abangakhuthaziyo" kumbhalo womthetho. Iinkundla ezingqongqo azikho ngokupheleleyo ezichaphazelekayo ngokuchasene norhulumente. Okwesithathu, amaziko awanazo iziviwo ezizizo zemfuno zemfuno; banokuzikhusela kuphela kumlinganiselo wokuba urhulumente we-U.S. Ukuba i-Cerresssionsssss imele ibekwe ngokuchanekileyo ngenxa yohlobo oluthile lwento ethile, umbutho unokuba umele ukhuthulwe ngqo phantsi korhulumente lowo urhulumente.

Enye inkalo ebalulekileyo yeyokuba ukhuseleko lolawulo oluphezulu lwamaqumrhu lungaphakanyiswa nakweliphi na iqondo lokubhena. Urhulumente usenokucela ukhuseleko kwakhona ekuphenduleni kwi-aclaims kunye nengxelo yesithathu. Noko ke, xa urhulumente eqalisa ukumangalela, ngokuqhelekileyo uthintelo olunyanzelekileyo lwezikhuphiso ezinyanzelekileyo eziphumayo kwintengiselwano enye okanye kwiziganeko ezifanayo.

Umahluko omkhulu phakathi kweLizwe noLawulo oluPhakamileyo

Ngoxa urhulumente norhulumente olawulayo bekhusela urhulumente ekumangalelweni, iziseko zabo ezisemthethweni, umgangatho, neemeko ezingafaniyo zingafani. Ukuqonda oku kumahluko kubalulekile ukuze kugqitywe ukuba ufanele ulwe phi umbandela yaye ngubani.

Isiphumo

Ukhuseleko olulawulayo lweRhulumente lufumaneka kuMphetho-siseko weshumi elinesithoba kunye nemigaqo yesakhiwo soburhulumente. INkundla Ephakamileyo isoloko ikholelwa ukuba uMphengululo weshumi elinesi-11 uqulethe ukhuseleko lomgaqo-siseko oluthi lunandiphe iimpahla kwinkundla yorhulumente, kwaye lukwasebenza nakwizinyuko zenkundla karhulumente njengomcimbi wolawulo lwemfuzamo. Ngokwahlukileyo koko, ukulondolozwa kolawulo oluzimeleyo luyimfundiso eqhelekileyo yomthetho engasekelwanga ngokucacileyo kumGaqo-siseko. Ikho ngenxa yokuba urhulumente wase-U.S.

Umda woKhuselo

Ukhuseleko lwezokhuselo lwezolawulo lwesizwe, abameli besizwe, kunye namagosa karhulumente asebenza kumsebenzi wawo osemthethweni. Ayikhuseli oomasipala, ubalo, okanye amaqumrhu karhulumente asekuhlaleni, athathwa njengamaqela ezobupolitika kunokuba abe zizixhobo zikarhulumente. Ukhuselo lolawulo loburhulumente lukhusela urhulumente waseUnited States, amaqumrhu awo, kunye namagosa karhulumente asebenza ngokweziqu zabo zemisebenzi yasemthethweni. Noko ke, amagosa karhulumente angafakwa kwigunya ngalinye lokwaphulwa komgaqo-siseko phantsi [[FLT]], nakuba ukhuseleko olufanelekileyo lokuzikhusela kusoloko ewakhusela kwityala.

Ukwaphulwa Kwemipu

Amaqumrhu okhuseleko olulawulayo lukarhulumente kufuneka aphume kurhulumente ngokwawo, mhlawumbi ngomthetho okanye ngokuvuma iimeko zenkqubo yorhulumente. Ingqungquthela iyakwazi ukukhusela urhulumente ngokungenayo kuphela xa esebenza phantsi kweCandelo 5 loMphetho-Mdathi we-14. Ukhuselo lolawulo lomanyano lungaphenjelelwa yiNgqungquthela ngolwimi olucacileyo olucacileyo phantsi kwawo nawuphi na amandla ayo adwelisiweyo. I-Waiverver yezokhuseleko lorhulumente ibonwa ngokungqongqo ekuxhaseni urhulumente, oko kuthetha ukuba nayiphi na into ethintelayo iphenjelelwa ekufumaneni umchasi.

Iindlela Ezikhethekileyo Nezicombululo

Eyona nto ibalulekileyo kumthetho wokuzikhusela ekuzilawuleni yi- imfundiso ye-Ex ye-Young, evumela iisuti ukuba zifumane isiqabu esitsha kumagosa karhulumente. Le mfundiso ayivumeli ukonakala kwemali kumnini-mali. Phantsi kwe-FTCA ne-Tucker Act, izithinteli-gonogoso-gosa zemali zivumela ukonakala kwemali, kodwa ziphantsi kwemiqathango yokusebenza okukhethekileyo kunye nemfuneko yokukhupha intengiso yolawulo. [[FLT:] iziphetho zemithetho-siseko soburhulumente, zinikela izenzo zokulungisa iziphumo zomonakalo nxamnye nabaphathi ngabanye, kodwa iNkuvoluvo zikho ukujijala ukuda [FLT] [FFF]]

Izizathu Ezisebenzisekayo

Kumbono welitaglate, umahluko ungaphezulu kakhulu. Umba othe gqolo ukucela umngeni umthetho okanye inkqubo yombuso uza kusoloko ecela igosa likarhulumente phantsi ex ex e Young kwinkundla yesizwe ukufumana umyalelo, kunokuba awise urhulumente ngqo. Urhulumente uzakufumana umchasi-mzi, njengorhulumente oza kuthatha inyathelo. Ngokuchasene norhulumente wesizwe, umphetho oqhelekileyo uyakwazi ukutshayelela phantsi kweFTCA okanye phantsi kwe-TBSCS yesivumelwano okanye phantsi komthetho we-Tucker act. Noko ke, urhulumente umele aphakamise umkhuseli wokhuseleko njengokhuselo, kwaye i-pesenti kufuneka aqinisekise ukuba aphume kwimo ye-'ethethotho.

Kuhlalutyo lothelekiso lokhuseleko kwinkqubo yomthetho waseMelika, iSebe leJava leJaji elisisishwankathelo sokhuseleko oluphezulu linika ukhokelo olugunyazisayo kwizithinteli zorhulumente.

Isiphelo

Ukhuseleko oluzimeleyo lwesizwe kunye nolawulo olulawulayo lwesizwe zimfundiso ezahlukileyo ezisebenza iinjongo ezihambelanayo: ukukhusela amaqumrhu karhulumente ekungavunyelwani. Ukuthintelwa korhulumente kusekelwe kwiSigqibo seshumi elinesithoba solawulo kunye nengcamango yolawulo olubini, kanti ulawulo lorhulumente ngumgaqo oqhelekileyo wokuba iBhunga likwazi ukuphelisa ulwaphulo-mthetho. Zombini ezi mfundiso zikrotywe ngokunzulu, njenge i-Ex yahlulwa encinci [FLT] imfundiso yamazwe kunye ne-FCA karhulumente olawulayo. Ukuqonda oku kuyimfuneko ukuba nabani na ohambayo athethe na ngabenzi bezomthetho. [urhulumente:] Ukufumaneka kwendlela yokufumana imvume yokuzilawula, kwaye inika umvukelo olungcono. [urhulumente umbangomnye umbangomoya othe , ugunyaze ugunyaze ugunyazwe, urhulumente othelela ukuxhasa imigaqo yemeko, kwaye ungenelelo oluphezulu lomthetho.[3]