Ukwazisa Imfundiso Yokwahlula

I-Incorporation Doctrine lisiseko somthetho-siseko waseMelika, uchaza ulwalamano phakathi kweBhili yamaLungelo noorhulumente bephondo. Xa iBhili yamaLungelo yagunyaziswa ngowe-1791, yasebenza kurhulumente wesizwe kuphela, ishiya amazwe ekhululekileyo ukumisela imithetho yawo yokuthetha, unqulo, inkqubo yolwaphulo-mthetho, namanye amalungelo asisiseko. Eli lungiselelo laguquka ngokuphawulekayo emva kokwamkelwa koMphetho-Mdabi wamaZwe ngo-1456. Kwinkulungwane elandelayo, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yachaza iMbutho kaClausleeces (intentengiselwano) ukuba “inike imigaqo emininzi yeBhili yamaLungelo, isenza ukhuseleko lunyanzeleke kurhulumente wasekuhlaleni. Namhlanje, imfundiso iqinisekisa ukuba ummi waseKhaliniya ukhululekile kuMhlalo wokuqala kunye nomnye owesaphula umthetho kwi-Texaken, njengoko kufumaneka kwi-Texas.

Iingcamango ezimbini ezikhuphisanayo zibuyile indaleko yemfundiso. iqinisekisa ukuba uHlaziyo lwe 14th Demence lufunxa iBhili yamaLungelo. Isiphumo singumsebenzi obalulekileyo [[, ukusondela kweNkundla eyamkelweyo, idibanisa amalungelo ngokwemiqathango, umzekelo, ukuvavanya ngamnye ngamnye ngokuchasene nengcamango yokuba ilungelo “lilungelelene necebo lokusesikweni eMelika." Isiphumo sisebenza ngamandla, maxa wambi, isiqumrhu somthetho esiqhubeka sisenzeka. Ukuqonda indlela i-Incoration Doctriness esebenza ngayo, kwaye indlela eqhuba ngayo nomthetho womthetho-ognotel.

Imvelaphi Yemfundiso Engokwahlukileyo

Inkqubo Eza Kulandelwa Yinkqubo KaClaus YoMthetho We - 14 WoMthetho - melo

Ngo1868, iCandelo 1 loMphetho-Mda weshumi elinesine linikela ukuba “[uRhulumente] uza kwenza okanye unyanzelise nawuphi na umthetho oza kuvala amalungelo okanye ukugonyelwa kwabemi baseUnited States; kwaye nawuphi na uMbuso awuyi kuhlutha nawuphi na umntu ubomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla, ngaphandle kwenkqubo efunekayo yomthetho; okanye ukhanyele nabani na okwigunya lakhe lokukhusela imithetho elinganayo. [[FLT:] [[0]] Priviges okanye I-Immunicties Clausse[[FLT:] [12] [12], iNkutshotsho kuleyo iNkubeko egqithisileyo, ukuba ibhalwe yiNkundla yeNkundla epheleleyo, ukuba ibhale amalungelo ayo angundoqo, okanye akhuselwe amalungelo alo-Rhulumente kuphela, okanye amiselwe ngurhulumente wayo, okanye agunyazwe ngurhulumente walo eligunya elo mbuso. Kodwa kumthetho oMkhosi wobuzwe ngokubanziswano.[F.]

Inkqubela Elindelekileyo

Emva kwesigqibo iNkundla ````Indlu'', amaligit ajikele kwi- Imodenti yeNkqutyana ka-Claus njengenye indlela. INkundla yaqalisa ukucebisa ngokuququzelelwa ekupheleni kwenkulungwane yeshumi elinethoba, kodwa ayizange ide ide i-[[FLT:]] Getlow v. New York [25] [imfundiso yangoku ivule isimo. [[FLT:]] Glut [[FLT]] , ngaphandle kokugqiba ngokupheleleyo ukukhuselwa kwenkululeko yokuthetha ngesisa." Isigqibo sokusebenza kwiimeko ezikhoyo ze-Celasscreak. Oko kuvulek' ivule iimeko ezizinzileyo ezizinzileyo kusetyenziswa kunyaka eminye engamashumi amathandathu eminyaka angamashumi amathandathu asixhenxe asixhenxe asixhenxe alandelayo.[amathandathu, asetyenziswayo, aphinda a

Amatyala eNkundla Ephakamileyo

Amalungelo Okuhlaziywa Kokuqala

  • Gitlow v. New York (1925): Benjamin Gitlow wagwetywa phantsi komthetho wesiphithiphithi waseNew York wezaphuli-mthetho wokusasaza amaphecana. INkundla yathi isiqinisekiso soMphetho wokuqala wenkululeko yokuthetha sisebenza kurhulumente usebenzisa i-ST Processom Clause, nangona yaqinisekisa ukuqiniseka kwakhe kuba intetho ibangele “ingozi ekhoyo.” Ityala laphawula isiqalo sokuqukunjelwa kweSinyuso Sokuqala.
  • [[NT.:0] Cantwell v. Connecticut (1940): Yolula i Free Execree Claus kumazwe, ikhusela ukucela konqulo.
  • Everson v. Board of Education (1947): Iquka uKwahlula uClaus, ukusebenzisa ukwahlulwa kwecawa norhulumente kwisithili zemfundo zasekuhlaleni.

Amalungelo Ezaphuli - mthetho

  • Mapp v. Ohio (1961): Dollree Map yagwetywa ngokusekelwe kubungqina obabanjwa ngexesha lokuphengulula okungekho mthethweni. INkundla yathi umthetho wesine wokuHlaziywa koMthetho weSine owenziweyo (ukungavumelani nokusetyenziswa kobungqina obufunyenwe ngokungekho mthethweni kwiinkundla zikarhulumente.] Esi sigqibo saguqula inkqubo yolwaphulo-mthetho ngokufuna amapolisa ukufumana imvume okanye ukwaneliswa kwemvume engaziwayo.
  • Gideon v. Wainwright (1963):[[FLT] Clarence Gideon, ummangalelwa olihlwempu eFlorida, wakhatywa ligqwetha. Inkundla yathi uGaqo-nkqubo lweSithandathu lokunika icebiso libalulekile kwaye lisebenza kumthetho ophendulweyo, ogqithisileyo kulwaphulo-mthetho olungaphambili [[FLT:] Brady[FL:3] (192]). Ngoku i-United States kufuneka inike igqwetha nabani na ummangalelwa ojongene netyala elinzulu.
  • Miranda v. Arizona (1966): Ernesto Miranda wagwetywa ngokusekelwe kuvumo lwezono olufunyenwe ngaphandle kokuxelelwa ngamalungelo akhe. INkundla yathi ilungelo lesihlanu lokuHlaziya ngokuchasene nokuzikhupha ngokwayo lifuna amapolisa ukuba aphendule u-“Miranda” phambi kokuncinwa kwegunya. Ngoku umthetho ubopha urhulumente nomthetho wasekuhlaleni.
  • Duncan v. Louisiana (1968): Waquka uHlaziyo lweSithandathu nelungelo lokuqulunqisa kwityala lejaji elinzulu. INkundla yasebenzisa “umlinganiselo wemeko esesikweni”, iphawula ukuba ukuchotshelwa kwetyala ngabachopheli-mthetho kusekelwe ngokunzulu kwi-Anglone-Melika ijusticalprudence.

Okwesibini, Okwesihlanu, NeziHlomelo Ezisibhozo

  • McDonald v. City of Chicago (2010): INkundla yaquka uHlaziyo lwesibini ekunene lokuzigcina nokuthwala iingalo ukuze uzenze umva, ukubetha phantsi uvalelo lompu wesandla weChicago. Esi sigqibo senza kwacaca ukuba i-Dishopian of Columbia v. Heller (2008) isebenza kurhulumente kunye norhulumente wasekuhlaleni.
  • [[UMGAQO] iBenton v. Maryland (11969): yaquka ukhuseleko loMphetho-mda wesihlanu kwingozi ephindwe kabini.
  • Robinson v. Kalifoniya (1962): waquka ulwalelo loMphetho-mda wesibhozo nxamnye nesohlwayo esikhohlakeleyo nesingaqhelekanga, silusebenzise kwimithetho yempula-ziyobisi karhulumente.

Asingawo onke amalungelo angenisiweyo. ISihlalo soHlaziyo seSithathu (ikomkhulu lamajoni), imfuneko enkulu yokugwetywa kweNkundla yesihlanu (] Hurtado v. California, 1884), kunye netyala lejaji leJaji leJaji lokuququzelela inkundla yephondo alizange liquke. Indlela yokungena ngokukhethiweyo yeNkundla yamagqabi ukuze iquke inxalenye yexesha elizayo ukuba ilungelo ligqalwe njengelibalulekileyo kwisithethe somthetho sohlanga.

Ukungenelela noMthetho woManyano

I-Incorporation Doctrine imisela umgangatho ophantsi owenzelwe amalungelo omntu ngamnye. Amazwe akanakungena ngaphantsi komgangatho, kodwa anokunikela ukhuseleko olungaphezulu. Umthetho wemanyano uqhubekeka phambili: IBhunga linokwandisa amalungelo angaphaya kobuncinci bomgaqo-siseko, kwaye linokudala iikhambi zemithetho ezizalisa iingxaki ezishiywe yimfundiso. Ngaphezu koko, iBhunga linamandla okuzinzisa phantsi kwecandelo 5 loMphetho-Mgaqo-siseko ofanelekileyo, ngamalungiselelo afanelekileyo, eli nqaku. Eli gunya livumela iiBhunga ukuba ziphumele imithetho ethintela, okanye zithintele ukusetyenziswa kwamalungelo, nokokuba loo mithetho iphumele ngokwayo ingekho migaqo elungeleneyo.

Amandla okunyanzelisa kunye neflokhwe yoHlomelo

kuKatzenbach v. Morgan (1966), iNkundla yaxhasa ukuvalwa koMthetho wamaLungelo wokubhala nokubhala kwiimvavanyo ze-Puerto Ricon covota eNew York, nangona iNkundla ngaphambili yayikholelwa ukuba iimvavanyo zobubhali azilwanga uKhuselo olulinganayo noluBambeleko luka-Celauskane. UJaji Brentan wabhala okokuba iCandelo 5 linike iNgqungquthela amandla okunika uBhunga ukuba “indawo ekhoyo nokuba inyanisweni yokuba izenzo zikaRhulumente zisebenza ukukhaba ingxuba imigaqo elungele ukuvuselela igunya lokulungisa iBhunga. Oku kubangela ukuba ukuvuselelwa kwemithetho epheleleyo." Oku kuvumela ukuba imimiselo yomthetho esemthethweni yomthetho egunyazayo iditya idityaniswe phakathi komthetho nomthetho ogunyaziweyo. Ngoko, izigqibo ezithiweyo zinokuphinda-ka, kodwa izigqibo zemithetho ezigunyaza i-Gwayo.

Indlela Imithetho Yomanyano Exhomekeke Ngayo Kumahluko

Umthetho omkhulu wamalungelo abantu obalulekileyo uxhomekeke kwiNjongo yeSivumelwano yamalungelo abantu. UMthetho weSikhundla samalungelo abantu we-1949 , umzekelo, usebenzisa amandla eKhomishini yeNgqungquthela kunye nokuLawulwa kwe-Gqizelo-Mpatho-siseko (igunya le-145) ukunqanda ucalucalucalulo kwizindlu zikawonke, umsebenzi, kunye neenkqubo ezixhaswa ngurhulumente. Kodwa ngaphandle kokuzibandakanya, amazwe anokuba avumele ucalucalucalulo lobuhlanga ngaphandle kwesohlwayo. [FOct:] kunye namaLuxandulo olulinganayo lokuKhuselwa uCelanisa u-Classiste Clace (ngeSinyuko se-145) Amalungelo oMgalelo-onke [ngendlela e-5] axhomekeke kwimigaqo-mthetho yesizwe elungele ukusetyenziswa kwemithetho yesizwe. Ngokunjalo, [FLct:2] kunye neemfuno zemithetho yesizwe ezithenjiweyo.[Foctus.[Foct:3]

Imithetho yoManyano exhasa amalungelo

UMthetho wamaLungelo ka-1964

Isihloko II soMthetho wamaLungelo oMgaqo-siseko woMgaqo-siseko wamaLungelo oPhakamileyo sithintela ucalucalulo olusekelwe kuhlanga, imibala, unqulo, okanye imvelaphi yesizwe kwiindawo zikawonke-wonke (iivenkile zokutyela, iiholo zemidlalo). Isihloko VII siyalwalela ucalucalulo lokuqeshwa emsebenzini kwangalo siseko sinye, kunye nesini. Lo Mthetho waxhaswa yiNkundla ePhakamileyo ukuvalwa kweAtlanta Motel v. United States[FLD] [1964] [194] [iiiiiiintebh [[FLT] kunye] neK [inten-'iiphakach v. McClung[FT] [12] [64] phantsi kwegunya leBhunga lorhwebo lomthetho othelelwa ngaphaya kwemvume, kodwa kwakhona waqhutywa ngesithembiso se-1456] se-Gedemgalelo esithel-yokusebenza ngokusetyenziswa kwemiqatha le-mthetho.

Isalathisi soMsebenzi weNkqubo

UMthetho wamaLungelo oMgaqo-nkqubo oMkhulu (VRA) mhlawumbi ngumthetho onamandla wesizwe osebenza kunye namalungelo omgaqo-siseko aqukiweyo. ICandelo 2 leVRA liyawulela nawuphi na umkhwa wokuvota ophumela ekucalulweni ngesiseko sohlanga okanye umbala, okanye ubulungu kwiqela elincinane lolwimi. UMthetho okhethekileyo wolawulo oluthe wasetyenziswa kangangamashumi eminyaka ukususa amaMelika aseAfrika, njengokuvavanywa kokufunda nokubhala, irhafuthelo lwerhafuthe, kunye neemfuno ezinzima zokubhalisa. IVRA yamiselwa phantsi koMgaqo-wo we-wo-wo-wo-wodwa (owawuthintela ucaluvo olu-luhlanga kwiqela lolwimi) kunye neCandelo lwe-Gastriod . [Umthetho ogunyazweyo i-Gawulayo) [5]

UMthetho (ADA) ka-1990

I-ADA iyabalela ukuvavanywa kolu phawu kumntu okhubazekileyo emsebenzini, kwizindlu zoluntu, kwizithuthi, nakwezemfonomfono. Isihloko II se-ADA sisebenza ngokukhethekileyo kurhulumente nakwimisebenzi karhulumente wasekuhlaleni, iinkqubo, kunye nemisebenzi. Oku kuxhomekeka kumandla okulawula kwe-145th Amend Amend Amendmentment kwavavanywa i-Board of Truddepons of University of Alabamask of Alabamask V. Garrett [[FLT] [2001], apho iNkupho iNkundla yathiwe ukuba abasebenzi abanako ukunyuselwa imali phantsi kweSihlo se-ADA ngenxa yokuba i-AA i-cetting ayizange ibonise ucalucalucalucalu-lucalucalu-lucaluel-luea ngokuvavanywa kweNku-onkelo oluselukuhlweyo, kodwa i-Adroumele i-o yoo yoomele i-o yoomkhulu, kodwa i-omele ukuvavanywa kweNkurho

Isihloko se-IX soLawulo lwemfundo lowe - 1972

Isihloko i-IX siyalwalela ucalucalulo olusekelwe kwisondo nakuyo nayiphi na inkqubo yemfundo ukufumana uncedo lwemali. Ngoxa isiseko somgaqo-siseko socalulo lwezocalulo lwesondo sisekelwe kumgangatho weSikhuseli sobuGcisa se-Elevini njengoko sisetyenziswa kumaphondo akwiSinyusi se-145th Amendment, iNkundla ePhakamileyo ayizange ifake ngokupheleleyo uphando olusekelwe kwisondo de United States v. Virginia [19696] [1969].] ISihlomelo sinika inkqubo esesikweni esoloko ikhupha iziphumo ezingaphaya koko kufunwa ngumGaqo-siseko sodwa (ukuhlasela ngokwesini nokuhlasela.). I-Incorration Doctrivery Doctrinethivements (e) phantsi kwesignontives system) ngokumisela le systitues I-tives proctivesssssssss processsss (ection sympli

Isiphelo

ISicwangciso sokuHlanganisa iSifundiso sisaphila, sijikeleza ibhulorho yasekuqaleni yomthetho-siseko yomlinganiselo wamalungelo kunye nemfuno zale mihla zokhuseleko olufanayo kuwo onke amazwe. Ngokuzibandakanya ngokukhetha, iNkundla ePhakamileyo iye yasebenzisa kakhulu, kodwa asiyiyo yonke (iBhili yamaLungelo karhulumente kunye noorhulumente basekuhlaleni, ixhomekeke kwinkqubo efanelekileyo kunye nokhuseleko olulinganayo lweSinyuko se-Gawulayo. Umthetho weSizwe usebenza kunye nale mithetho yeSinyuko somGciko-siseko ngokuyintluntlu eendlela eziliqela: iyakwazi ukucacisa umlinganiselo wamalungelo adityanisiweyo, isenza amaqhinga agqithe zigqibo, kwaye igunyazisa isenzo somthetho sokwaphula umthetho wesizwe ukuba kuthintelo, uMthetho weSivumelo, we-A, kunye neSihloko se-X sixhomekeke kwiSiphetho sinye sesiseko esibekwe ngokwahlulo.

Xa ukhangela phambili, imfundiso ingajongana nocelomngeni olutsha. Ukuququzelelwa kweSiphendulo sesibini kusacocwa, ingakumbi malunga namaqhinga okulungisa amaqhinga (] iNew York State Rifle & Pistol Association v. Bruen, 2022]. Imimiselo engaquququzelelwanga i-"grand comciption, ityala lejaji, ityala lengingqi, kwaye ikota-"inokuphinda iphinde iphindwe kwakhona ukuba iNkundla iyifumana ingundoqo kwimithetho yanamhlanje yaseMelika. Okwangoku, iqhubela phezu komda weCandelo lweCandelo 5 kunye nomgangatho apho imithetho yorhulumente inokuthi ibeke izibophelelo kumazwe ngaphandle kokuqhuba imigaqo yomthetho womthetho. Ukuqonda imigaqo ye-Propoodvotion ayingolukelk ingulo yembali yembali engundoqo kodwa iya kuqwala iinjongo ezilandelayo.