Table of Contents

Amatyala asemthethweni asetyenziswayo amela amaxesha abalulekileyo embalini ekwandiswa kuyo inkundla. Ezi zigqibo zicacisa ngokuyintloko imbono esemthethweni, zimisela imizekelo engqinelanayo yemithetho yexesha elizayo, kwaye ziphembelela ngokunzulu indlela izigidi zabantu eziphila ngayo ubomi bazo bemihla ngemihla. Ukusuka kumalungelo esiwasebenzisayo xa sisebenzisa umthetho kwizikolo kunye nokhuseleko esilufumana emsebenzini, amatyala aphawulayo achaphazela phantse zonke iinkalo zebutho lanamhlanje. Ukuqonda indlela ezi zigqibo ziguqulela ngayo kwiziphumo zelizwe lokwenene zobomi.

Ukuqonda Amatyala Neengcebiso Ezisemthethweni

EUnited States, izigwebo zenkundla eziphawula iziganeko zembali zifumaneka rhoqo kwiNkundla ePhakamileyo. La matyala afumana inkcazo yawo e "yophawu" kungekuphela nje ngenxa yokuntsonkotha okanye ukuqwalaselwa kwawo nguwonke wonke, kodwa ngenxa yokuba aseka imigaqo emitsha engokwasemthethweni okanye ngokuphawulekayo aguqula iinkcazelo ezikhoyo zamalungelo omGaqo-siseko kunye nomthetho-mthetho. INkundla asilolona gunya liphezulu kuphela kwi-oseUnited States kodwa ikwangutoliki oyintloko wemGaqo-siseko, uxwebhu lwethu lokusekwa kwedemokhrasi.

Izigqibo zeNkundla ePhakamileyo zimisela imizekelo esemthethweni emisela ukusekwa kwenkqubo nokuphunyezwa kwesixeko, umgangatho, kunye norhulumente. Lo mgaqo wezomzekelo, owaziwa ngokuba stare decis[, uthetha ukuba iinkundla ezisezantsi kufuneka zilandele imigaqo esemthethweni emiselwe ziinkundla eziphakamileyo kwiimeko ezifanayo. Xa iNkundla ePhakamileyo ikhupha umthetho, idala isiphumo esiphangaleleyo kuyo yonke inkqubo yokugweba, iphembelela indlela abagwebi abachaza ngayo imithetho, indlela abamisela ngayo imimiselo emitsha, nendlela abameli besebe bakarhulumente abayisebenzisa ngayo imimiselo emitsha.

Iinkundla eziphakamileyo zaseUnited States zinokwenza izigqibo ezinjalo, ingakumbi ukuba iNkundla Ephakamileyo ikhetha ukungalihloli eli tyala. Kwanetyala eliphakamileyo linokukhupha izigqibo ezibalaseleyo ezichaphazela indlela yokucinga esemthethweni kwiingingqi ezininzi, nangona igunya lazo lihlala lilinganiselwe kumazwe alo.

Brown v. ibhodi yemfundo: Ukuguqula uMbutho waseMerika

Mhlawumbi akukho tyala libonisa bhetele impembelelo enzulu yesizwe yesigqibo esiphawulekayo kuneBrown v. Board of Education. Kwesi sigqibo sibalulekileyo, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yagqiba kwelokuba ukwahlula abantwana kwizikolo zikawonke-wonke ngesiseko sohlanga akuyiyo inkqubo yomthetho. Umthetho wowe- 1954 awuzange uyitshintshe nje ngokulula inkqubo yemfundo `ichaphazelisa wonke umbutho wentlalo kwaye ngokusisiseko wacel ’ umngeni umngeni osemthethweni we-paration.

Isiseko Sasemthethweni

Inkundla eyavumelanayo yarhoxa kwiPlessy v. Ferguson yathi imithetho karhulumente efuna okanye evumela izikolo ezicalucalulwe ngokwee-cancations ichasene noKhuselo olulinganayo lweSinyusi seshumi elinesine. Ingqiqo yeNkundla yayichanile kodwa yayineenguqu: "Iziko lemfundo ezihlukeneyo azilingani ngokwemvelo." Esi sindululo sagatya amashumi eminyaka enkqubo esemthethweni eyayivumele ubuhlanga phantsi kwemfundiso "ehlukene kodwa elinganayo".

Imfundo mhlawumbi yeyona misebenzi ibalulekileyo yoorhulumente basekuhlaleni, kwaye imithetho yesikolo enyanzelekileyo kunye neenkcitho ezinkulu zemfundo zombini zibonisa ukuqaphela kwethu ukubaluleka kwemfundo kwibutho lethu ledemokhrasi. Ngokuyiqonda indima ephambili yemfundo kubomi baseMerika, iNkundla yavuma ukuba izikolo ezinocalucalulo zabangela umonakalo osulele kude lee kwizakhiwo zokwenyama okanye izixhobo zemfundo.

Impembelelo Ephangaleleyo Entlalweni

Ukuphelisa ucalucalulo kwizikolo zikawonke-wonke zeli lizwe kwabangela inkqubela enkulu kumbutho wamalungelo abantu, isenza inkqubela enokwenzeka ekuhlawulweni kwezindlu, iindawo zokuhlala zikawonke-wonke, kunye namaziko emfundo ephakamileyo. Isigqibo saphembelela abaxhasi abaphambili bemfazwe kwaye sanikela iimbumbulu ezisemthethweni zokuvavanya ukungabikho kohlanga kuzo zonke iintlobo. Kwiinkalo ezininzi, iinjongo ezichazwe kuBrown v. Ibhodi yaphembelela iphupha lebutho elisekelwe kubulungisa nakulingana kwezizwe.

Ngoko, indlela esuka kumthetho ukuya kuzalisekiso lwenene yabonakala inde kwaye inzima. Amaphepha ali-14 esi sigqibo awazange achaze nayiphi na indlela yokuphelisa ucalulo lohlanga kwizikolo, kwaye isigqibo sesibini seNkundla eBrown II (1955) kuphela esiyalelweyo ukukhupha ulawulo "ngesantya somcimbi wezomdla. Le mithetho ecacileyo yavumela ulawulo oluninzi ukuphelisa umanyano iminyaka okanye amashumi eminyaka.

Ukuxhathisa okumhlophe ekuphelisweni kwesikolo kwaphumela ekudelweni nasekungquzuleni okuvulekileyo, okufuna ukusetyenziswa kwemikhosi karhulumente eLittle Rock, eArkansas, ngo1957. Phezu kwalo nje olu celomngeni, inkqubela yaphela iyenzeka. Inani labafundi abantsundu ababhaliswa kwizikolo ezihlawuliweyo eMzantsi lasuka kumgangatho ongaphantsi kwepesenti elinye ukuya kuma-40 ekhulwini.

Ukuqhubeka Neengxaki

Ilifa likaBrown liseyintsonkothilelo kwaye liphikiswa. Nanamhlanje, umsebenzi kaBrown awukagqitywa, njengoko amatyala esikolo angaphezulu kwama-200 eengxelo zokuhlalisana kwenkundla yenkundla yelifa lesizwe. Ucelomngeni lwangoku luquka ukuphinda kuqhutywe ngemilinganiso yezindlu nemigaqo-nkqubo yesikolo ebonakalisa ukuba izigqibo ezibalaseleyo, nangona zinamandla, azinakuguqula izakhiwo zentlalo ezizinziweyo ngokunzulu.

Amalungelo Okwabelana Ngezaphuli - mthetho: UMiranda noGidiyon

Amatyala amabini aphawulekayo ngokusisiseko ayiguqula indlela inkqubo yokugweba esebenza ngayo inkqubo yolwaphulo - mthetho, amisela imigaqo yokukhusela inkoliso yabantu baseMerika ngoku abayithatha lula xa ibukela imicimbi yamapolisa kumabonwakude okanye xa idibana nomthetho onyanzelisayo ebomini bokwenene.

UMiranda kwicala lakwa - Arizona: Ilungelo Lokuhlala Uthule

KwiMiranda nakuErizona ngo1966, iNkundla Ephakamileyo yaqwalasela amatyala amane ahlukeneyo apho abamangalelwa bavuma ulwaphulo-mthetho emva kokuba bebanjiwe baza bancinwa ngamapolisa ngaphandle kokuxelelwa ngelungelo labo lokuba bafumane igqwetha. Eli tyala lavela ekubanjisweni kuka-Erneto Miranda ePhoenixpox, owayengaxelelwanga ngelungelo lakhe lokucebisa, yaye emva kokuncinwa iiyure ezimbini, watyobela ukuvuma ulwaphulo-mthetho.

Inkundla yafumanisa ukuba iziHlanziso zeNkundla zesihlanu nezeSithandathu zifuna ukuba amapolisa azise abantu abaselugcinweni ukuba banelungelo lokuhlala bethe cwaka nokuncedwa ligqwetha. Esi sigqibo sadala oko sikwaziyo ngoku njenge "Maranda amalungelo" okanye "Izilumkiso zeMiranda"/______________

Impembelelo esebenzisekayo kaMiranda ifikelela nakuwo onke amabanjwa aseMerika. Amapolisa kufuneka ngoku axelele abarhanelwe ngamalungelo awo asemthethweni phambi kokuba ancinwe phambi kokuba afumane iingxelo zokuvavanywa kwetyala, okanye nawaphi na amaxwebhu anokungakhuselwa ekuthethweni. Oku kunceda ukuqinisekisa ukuba ukuvuma izono kuyinto yokuzithandela kunokuba kunyanzelwe, alondoloze umgaqo osisiseko wokuba abantu bangakwazi ukunyanzeleka ukuba bazenze bangene.

UGidiyon Wainwright: Ilungelo Lokucebisa

INkundla Ephakamileyo yagwebela uGidiyon, isithi iSiHlaliso seSithandathu sifuna ukuba abamangalelwa abazizigebengu abamangalelwayo banikwe igqwetha ngesisa. Eli tyala laqala xa uClarence Earl Gideon, engomamela, wacela ijaji ukuba imnike igqwetha ngesisa, kodwa ijaji yasikhaba.

Inkundla yathi uHlaziyo lweSithandathu olunelungelo lokunceda kwisiluleko lusebenza kwiityala zolwaphulo-mthetho nokuba "abaphathi-mthetho kwinkundla yezaphuli-mthetho bayimfuneko, hayi ubunewunewu". Lo mgaqo uyaqonda ukuba ukuntsonkotha kwenkqubo engokwasemthethweni kwenza ukuba ukusetyenziswa kwengcali kubaluleke kwityala elifanelekileyo, kungakhathaliseki ukuba lingakanani na imali yommangalelwa.

Kunye nelungelo lokunceda abamangalelwa betyala likarhulumente, isigqibo sikaGidiyon saba nesiphumo sokwandisa iinkqubo zokukhusela uwonke wonke kulo lonke ilizwe. Namhlanje, iiofisi zokhuselo lukawonke-wonke zikho kwimimandla yelizwe lonke, zinika imelo elingokwasemthethweni kwabo bangakwaziyo ukuthenga amagqwetha obuqu. Esi siseko singumphumela ocacileyo wesigqibo seNkundla ePhakamileyo, esichaphazela amakhulu amawaka eenkundla zabamangalelwa.

Amalungelo Obuqu Nokuzenza Odwa

Amatyala amaninzi aphawula izinto ezithile alolonga ukuqondwa kwamaMelika amalungelo obuqu, nangona igama elithi "umthetho ofihlakeleyo" lingaveli ndawo kumbhalo womGaqo-siseko. Iinkundla zitolike amalungiselelo ahlukeneyo omgaqo-siseko ukukhusela ukuzimela ngokwawo kwimicimbi esuka ekuthinteleni ukuthintela ukuthintela ulwazi.

Indaleko Yemfundiso Eyimfihlo

UmGaqo-siseko uthetha ilungelo lokuzimela izinto eziyimfihlo kwimibandela yokuthintela ukukhawula phakathi kwabantu abatshatileyo. Lo mgaqo, omiselwe eGriswold v. Connecticut (1965), waqonda ukuba ukutshintshwa komgaqo-siseko okuhlukahlukeneyo kudala "iipenumbras" okanye iindawo zobuqu ezikhusela izigqibo ezisondeleyo zobuqu ekungeneleni korhulumente.

Isiseko sobuqu esamiselwa kwezi meko saphembelela izigqibo ezalandelayo eziphathelele amalungelo okuzala, ulwalamano lwentsapho, kunye nokuzimela geqe. Noko ke, umlinganiselo nokusetyenziswa kwamalungelo obuqu kuhlala kuhleli kuphantsi kwengxoxo eqhubekayo engokwasemthethweni neyopolitiko, iinkundla eziqhubeka zixhathisa indlela imigaqo-siseko esebenza ngayo kubugcisa bezi mini nakwiinkqubo zentlalo.

Inkqubela yakutshanje Kumalungelo

KwiDobs v. Jackson Women’s Health Organization, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yakhetha ukubhukuqa ezo zigwebo zemiqondiso. Inkundla yathi umGaqo-siseko awuqinisekisi ilungelo lokuqhomfa, njengokuba eli lungelo lingakhankanywanga ngokucacileyo kumbhalo, kwaye alinjalo ngokwaneleyo "elisekelwe ngokunzulu kwimbali yesizwe nakwisithethe" ukuthathwa njengento eboniswayo phantsi kweNkqubo kaCelaus.

Esi sigqibo sibonisa indlela amatyala abalulekileyo anokupheliswa ngayo, ngokusisiseko etshintsha ubume bomthetho. Ukuguquka kwemeko yelizwe kuye kwaba neziphumo ezisebenzayo ngokukhawuleza, ngokulandela iindlela ezahlukeneyo zokukhupha isisu, nto leyo eyenza oko abanye bakuchaza njengesixhobo esidityanisiweyo samalungelo okuzala kulo lonke ilizwe.

Inkululeko Yokuqala Yokwenziwa Kohlaziyo Kubomi Bemihla Ngemihla

Amatyala okuHlakulelwa Kwenkululeko yokuthetha, yokupapasha inkululeko nenkululeko yonqulo achaza imida yenkululeko yokuthetha esusela kwizikolo ukuya kutsho kumajelo eendaba.

Amalungelo Okuthetha Abafundi

INkundla ePhakamileyo yathi abafundi abawathanga "awawayeki amalungelo abo omgaqo-siseko okuthetha... kwisango lendlu yesikolo." Lo mgaqo we-Tinker v. Des Moines (1969) wamisela ukuba abafundi bagcine ukhuseleko loQoqolo Lokuqala esikolweni, nangona intetho yabafundi yayinokuthintelwa kuphela ukuba iphazamisa inkqubo yemfundo.

Esi siseko siyaqhubeka siphembelela iimpikiswano ezingolwazi ngembonakalo yabafundi, ukusuka kwimibhiyozo yezopolitiko ukuya kwimiba yezentlalo-ntle. Izikolo kufuneka zilungelelanise umsebenzi wazo wemfundo kwaye zifune ulungelelwaniso nxamnye namalungelo omgaqo-siseko wabafundi ./a ulungelelwaniso lokuba iinkundla ziqhubeke ziconga njengoko kuvela iindlela ezintsha zokubonakalisa nonxibelelwano.

Hlaziya Inkululeko Nentetho Yesidlangalala

Ukuphumelela kwityala lesogono, amanani kawonke-wonke kufuneka angqine "izenzo zobundlobongela" kumbhali. Lo mgangatho, omiswe kwiNew York Times v. Sullivan (1964), unika ukhuseleko olubalulekileyo kwiintatheli nabanye ababhala ngamagosa kawonke-wonke kunye namanani kawonke-wonke. Umthetho kufuneka ukhusele ababhali kwiisuti ze-librel ukuqinisekisa "ongenakubhaqwa, eqinileyo nebanzi" ngengxoxo emalunga namanani kawonke-wonke.

Oku kukhusela kunceda uphando lobuncwadi, ukugqabaza kwezobupolitika, nokugxekwa kwasekuhlaleni kwabo basemagunyeni. Ngaphandle kokukhuselwa, isisongelo sokumangalelwa komthetho sinokuba shushu intetho yasesidlangalaleni ebalulekileyo kwaye kuthintele amandla amaziko-ndaba okusebenza njengovavanyo kumandla karhulumente.

Ukufuna Nokuzimela: Umgaqo - siseko Wesine Wokulungiswa

Amatyala oMthetho weSihlaziyo sesine aye amisela imithetho elawula xa amapolisa efuna iindawo, efumana ubungqina, yaye ehlola imigaqo.

Umthetho Osisiphendu

Le nkcazelo ifunyenwe ngokungekho mthethweni ayinakusetyenziswa kwityala lolwaphulo-mthetho. Lo mgaqo, omiselwe eMap v. Ohio (1961), ukhuthaza ngamandla amapolisa ukuba ahlonele amalungelo eSine Solawulo. INkundla Ephakamileyo yavuma yaza yasebenzisa umthetho wokubhaliswa kwemiqathango we-Tyeki v. United States (1914).

Umthetho ozinzileyo uthetha ukuba kwanobungqina obubekiweyo obubekiweyo kufuneka bucinywe ukuba amapolisa abufumene ngokuphanda okungekho mgaqweni okanye ngokuphangwa. Oku kukhusela kunceda ukuqinisekisa ukuba ukugcinwa komthetho kuhlonela imida emiselwe ngomgaqo-siseko, njengoko ukuphulwa kunokubangela ukuba amatyala agxothwe okanye ubungqina bungakhutshwa.

Ucelomngeni Lokungathethi Ngento Yayo Yodwa

Njengoko ubugcisa butshintsha, iinkundla ziqhubeka zisebenzisa imigaqo yesi-5 IsiHlaziyo kwiimeko ezintsha. Imibuzo ephathelele ukuphengululwa kwecell phone, ukuxilongwa kweGPS, ukuxilongwa kweminxeba, nokusetyenziswa kwenkcazelo yekhompyutha ifuna ukuba iijaji zichaze izinto ezibhalwe kwiinkulungwane ezadlulayo ezibhalwe ngobugcisa.

Urhwebo kunye namandla omanyano

Amatyala achaza iClaus yezorhwebo aye abangela ukuba kubekho ukulungelelana kwamandla phakathi koorhulumente borhulumente norhulumente, nto leyo eye yabangela ukuba kubekho umgaqo wezoqoqosho, ukukhuselwa kwemekobume nokunyanzeliswa kwamalungelo abantu.

Igunya lomanyano elandayo

INkundla yathi yindima karhulumente wesizwe ukulawula ezorhwebo kwaye oorhulumente bakarhulumente abanako ukuvelisa imithetho yabo yorhwebo. Lo mgaqo uvela kwiGibbons v. Ogden (1824) useke ubungangamsha besizwe kwimicimbi yezorhwebo yezopolitiko. INkundla yayila ingcaciso ebanzi ye "commerce," iqiqa ngelokuba eli gama laliquka okungaphezulu kunokuthengisa nokuthenga nje, kwaye igqibe kwelokuba ukulawula ukuqhuba amanzi kwakusesona senzo silawulwa ngurhwebo.

Impembelelo yeGibbons isevakala nanamhlanje njengoko inika urhulumente wesizwe isiseko esibanzi sokulawula intengiso yezoqoqosho. Le nkcazelo ibanzi yamandla orhwebo yengingqi incede iNgqungquthela ukuba icombulule imicimbi esukela kumgangatho wokusebenza ukuya kukhuseleko lwemekobume yamalungelo abantu, njengokuba le micimbi isoloko ibandakanya urhwebo lwamazwe ngamazwe ngamanye amazwe.

Izicelo eziSebenzayo

Amandla ezorhwebo athethelela imithetho yemivuzo encinane yorhulumente, imimiselo yokhuseleko emsebenzini, ukukhuselwa kwemekobume, kunye nokuvalwa kocalulo kwiindawo zokuhlala zikawonke-wonke. Xa iNgqungquthela yawisa uMthendeleko wamalungelo abantu ngowe-1964, ngokwengxenye yaxhomekeke kuMthetho kaClaus wezorhwebo ukuthintela ucalucalulo kwiihotele, kwiivenkile zokutyela, nakwamanye amashishini asebenza abahambi abaphakathi kwemimandla yamazwe. Oku kubonisa indlela ukuchazwa komgaqo-siseko wezo siseko wezopolitiko okunokwenza inkqubela kwimimandla ebonakala ingavisisani.

Amalungelo Emipu Nohlaziyo Lwesibini

Ngo-2008, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yakhupha umthetho wesiHlaziyo wesibini weSithili saseColumbia v. Heller, ibetha imithetho emininzi engqongqo yemipu yaseWashington D.C., eyayiquka ukuvalwa komkhonto wabemi abazimeleyo. EHeller, iNkundla yawisa umthetho wokuqala wokuba umGaqo-siseko ukhusele ilungelo labemi baseMerika lokuba nezixhobo ezinokusetyenziswa ekhaya ukuze bazikhusele kwaye bazikhusele.

Phambi kweHeller, abaphengululi abaninzi abangokwasemthethweni baxhasa ukuchazwa okuncinane kweSihlaziywa sesibini, okujoliswe ekuqulunqeni ilungelo lokulungiselela umkhosi kunokuba kukhuselwe ikhaya likabani kunye/okanye impahla yakhe. Isigqibo esiye samiselwa ngokusisiseko sikwalathiswa kweSesibini soHlaziyo loMgaqo-nkqubo, simisela ilungelo lomntu ngamnye lokuxhobisa ngemintsho elahlukeneyo nenkonzo yemikhosi.

Isiphumo esisebenzisekayo sibalulekile. Umthetho awuwuthinteli wonke umthetho wokulawula imipu, ngoko, njengokuba ufuna ubuchule obungakumbi kubenzi bomthetho, kwaye nangona ukuvalwa kwemipu ngokungqalileyo kungasathathwa njengomgaqo-siseko, eminye imimiselo ekwimipu isenokumiselwa. Kunokukwalela ukuba ngumnini wemipu, izixeko zinikezele ngokungqongqo imfuno yokuhlola okanye amaxesha okulinda, kwaye ngenye indlela yokulawula imipu engasafumaneki kubo, abenzi bomthetho baye bafumana ubuchule obungakumbi, besamkela iNkuquluko ngokuyila ezinye izicombululo zomthetho ukuphendula ulwaphulo-mthetho olunogonyamelo nogonyamelo lwemipu.

Ukukhuselwa ngokulinganayo namalungelo asekuhlaleni

Ngaphandle kokwahlukana esikolweni, amatyala aphawula i - Aumetic Protection aye athetha ngocalucalulo olusekelwe kwisini, uhlanga nezinye iimpawu, olubumba umthetho wemisebenzi, amalungelo okuvota nokufikelela kwiinkonzo zikawonke wonke.

Ucalucalulo

Abaphathi bezabelo abanakubizwa ngendlela ecalucalula ngesini; okokuqala iGosa Elilinganayo Elikhuselayo uClause lifundelwe yiNkundla ePhakamileyo njengelisebenza ngokwesondo. Lo mgaqo weReed v. Reed (1971) waphawula ukuqala kokucaciswa okuphezulu kwemigaqo yezomthetho esekelwe kwisondo.

Umqeshi usenokungakwamkeli, xa kungekho mfuneko yezoshishino, akavumi ukuqesha amabhinqa anabantwana abatshayo ngoxa eqeshile amadoda akwi- Phillips v. Martin Marietta Corp. (1971) wanceda ekuqinisekiseni ukuba imigaqo yemisebenzi ephatha amadoda namabhinqa ngokwahlukileyo iyawaphula amalungelo asekuhlaleni, ivula indlela yokulingana emsebenzini.

Inyathelo Elizinzileyo Namathuba Okufundiswa

URegents weYunivesithi yaseKhalifoniya v. Bakke (1978) wathetha ngoyeyiselo kwimfundo ephakamileyo, njengoko uAllan Bakke, umlungu ocela isicelo, wacel ’ umngeni iYunivesithi yaseCalifornia Davis Medical School, eyayigcina inani elikhethekileyo lezihlalo kubantu abambalwa abacela uncedo, yaye kwisigqibo esinzima, iNkundla yawisa isigwebo ngokuchasene nokusetyenziswa komlinganiselo wobuhlanga kwiindawo ezingenisiweyo.

La matyala angqinelayo abonisa indlela iNkundla Ephakamileyo enokuyichaphazela ngayo inkqubo ngokuhamba kwexesha, njengoko izigqibo eziphathelele ukuvuma ukutyhubela amashumi eminyaka kwaye, kwiingongoma ezahlukeneyo, zinyusiwe kwaye zidityanisiwe kwaye zishwankathelwe kumgangatho womsebenzi onokwenziwa ngabenzi benkqubo malunga nokuvuma kwimfundo ephezulu. Izigqibo zakutshanje zikho nezinye imigaqo-nkqubo yohlanga elinganiselweyo, ebonisa indaleko eqhubekayo yemfundiso yokukhusela elinganayo.

Imo efunekayo nokulunga

Amatyala alandelayo aye amisela iindlela zokukhusela eziqinisekisa ukuba urhulumente uqhuba ngokusesikweni kumalungelo abantu, ukususela ekuqeqesheni esikolweni ukusa ekuphunyezweni kwemicimbi yolwaphulo - mthetho ukusa ekusweleni impahla.

Amalungelo Okufundisa Alindelekileyo

INkundla ePhakamileyo yagwebela abafundi, isithi xa urhulumente ebafundisa bonke abemi bakhe, ayinakubahlutha ngaphandle kokuqinisekisa ukukhuselwa kwenkqubo efanelekileyo. Lo mgaqo osuka kwiGos v. Lopez (1975) uthetha ukuba abafundi abajamelene nokugxothwa banelungelo lokuphawula kunye nethuba lokuviwa ngaphambi kokuba bashenxiswa esikolweni.

Oku kukhusela kuyayivuma imfuno yemfundo kwaye kuqinisekisa ukuba izikolo azinakukwazi ukuwaphazamisa amathuba emfundo. Imfuneko yokufumana ubuchule obusisiseko isebenza kwiimeko ezininzi zikarhulumente, ukusuka kwiingenelo zentlalo-ntle ukuya kumagunya oogqirha ukuya kwimisebenzi kawonke-wonke.

Indlela Iimeko zophawu lwasezweni Eziwuchaphazela Ngayo Inkqubo Nomthetho

Izigqibo zeSCOTUS zinokuphelisa imithetho, zichaze inkqubo ekhoyo ngokutsha, zivule amabala amatsha enkqubo enziweyo. Xa iinkundla ziwisa umthetho njengongekho mgaqweni, abamisi-mthetho kufuneka babuyele kwibhodi yokuzoba, belungiselela iindlela ezintsha ezihambisana neenkcazelo ezingokwemigaqo-siseko.

Maxa wambi izigqibo eziphawula iziganeko eziphawulekayo zishukumisela ukuba kuququzelelwe okanye kwandiswe kukhuseleko lwezomthetho. Amanye amaxesha, akhuthaza ukutshintshwa komgaqo-siseko ukuze kubhukuqeke okanye kulungiswe imithetho yenkundla. Ukusetyenziswa kwezigwebo zomthetho kunye neempendulo zowiso-mthetho kudala inkqubo esebenzayo engomthetho eguquka ngamasebe amaninzi karhulumente.

Impembelelo yolawulo

Amasebe karhulumente kufuneka alungelelanise imithetho yawo kunye nomthetho wawo ukuze avumelane nezigqibo eziphawula iziganeko. Xa iinkundla zichaza imiqathango yomgaqo-siseko okanye imithetho yeendlela ezintsha, amasebe olawulo ahlaziya imithetho yawo, ahlaziye amaxwebhu awo okhokelo, kwaye alungise izinto eziphambili zokugcinwa kwemithetho. Oku kuqinisekisa ukuba ukuphunyezwa kwemithetho elawulayo kuyavumelana neenkcazelo ezigwetyiweyo.

Imida Yamandla Okugweba

Ngelixesha amatyala abalulekileyo enokuthi ayenze iinguqu ezibalulekileyo, akwajongene nokungafezeki okungokwemvelo. Iinkundla zingachaza oko kungumthetho, kodwa zixhomekeke kwamanye amasebe nakubadlali ukuzalisekisa izigqibo zabo. Ukuchasa, nokuba kungokuchasene nokungqalileyo okanye ngokuphepha, kunokumisela impembelelo esebenzayo yesigqibo.

Ngaphezu koko, izigqibo zogwebo azinakucombulula zonke iingxaki zentlalo ezintsonkothileyo. IBrown v. Board of Education ingakwalela ukwahlulwa koluntu, kodwa ayinakuphelisa ukungalingani kwezemali, okanye ikhethe labucala. Ngokufanayo, izigqibo zenkqubo yolwaphulo-mthetho zinokumisela amalungelo, kodwa azinakuqinisekisa ukuba zixhaswa ngokwaneleyo iinkqubo zokukhusela uluntu okanye ziphelise konke ukuziphatha okubi kwamapolisa.

Indima YeziNtlanganiso

Amatyala ophawu lwelizwe asoloko evela kwimibutho ebanzi yoluntu kwaye, ngokulandelayo, anika izixhobo kunye nempembelelo kwiphulo lokuzilungiselela ngokuqhubekayo. I-NaACP yakhokelela kwiBrown v. Ibhodi yemfundo, eyathi ngoko yanika amandla umbutho wamalungelo abantu. Ngokufanayo, amatyala aseka amalungelo e-LGBTQ, ukhuseleko lwemekobume, nezinye inkqubela zibonisa iminyaka yokulungiselela, ukuphatha, ukutshintsha kwenkcubeko, kunye nokutshintsha kwempucuko ngaphandle kwenkundla.

Iingxaki Zangexesha Elidluleyo Neengxaki Ezimandundu

Iinkundla zanamhlanje zijongene nemibuzo encinane eza kuvelisa amatyala abalulekileyo ngomso. Imicimbi yamanani kwisizukulwana semfonomfono-mfono kunye ne-media, umgangatho wamandla olawulo kwimeko yongxamiseko, ukusetyenziswa kokhuseleko lwamalungelo abantu kumongo omtsha, kunye nolungelelwano phakathi kwemithetho yonqulo nezobuhlanga ezikhoyo zonke imicimbi ezikhoyo iinkundla ezixabana ngokukhutheleyo nayo.

Ubuxhakaxhaka kunye namalungelo omgaqo-siseko

Njengoko ubugcisa buhambela phambili, iinkundla kufuneka zimisele indlela imigaqo yomgaqo-siseko esebenza ngayo ekuphengululeni amanani, ekuthetheni ngekhompyutha, ekuqulunqeni izigqibo ze-algorith, nasekuqokelelweni kogcino-lwazi.

Ukutshintsha Kwemekobume Nemozulu

Amatyala aqukumbelanayo athetha enoba oorhulumente banembopheleleko engokomGaqo-siseko yokulungisa imozulu, indlela imigaqo yemekobume enxulumene ngayo namalungelo empahla, nendlela iinkundla ezifanele zisebenze ngayo ekuchaseni umonakalo wemekobume.

Ukuqonda Amalungelo Akho: Iinkqubo Eziluncedo

Kubantu ngabanye, ukuqonda amatyala abalulekileyo kuthetha ukwazi amalungelo akho kwiimeko ezikonklekileyo. Xa umiswa ngamapolisa, uMiranda kunye namatyala anxulumene nawo aqinisekisa ilungelo lakho lokuhlala uthule ucele igqwetha. Ukuba awunakukwazi ukuhlawula igqwetha kwityala lolwaphulo-mthetho, uGidiyon uqinisekisa ukuba umelwe yi-ofisi ejongene nocalucalucalulo. Ukuba ujongene nemisebenzi, indawo yokuhlala okanye indawo yokuhlala kawonke-wonke wonke, amatyala asemthethweni akhusela amalungelo abantu.

Le asiyomigaqo engekho ngqiqweni engokwasemthethweni, zizixhobo ezisebenzayo ezichaphazela unxibelelwano lokwenene lwehlabathi norhulumente, abaqeshi, izikolo, namanye amaziko. Ukwazi la malungelo kunika abantu amandla okuwasebenzisa xa kuyimfuneko nokuqonda xa ulwaphulo-mthetho lusenzeka.

Oovimba Bemfundo

Imibutho emininzi inikela ulwazi olufikelelekayo malunga namalungelo omgaqo-siseko kunye neemeko zophawu. U.S. inikeza ii-website zemfundo malunga nemiqondiso yeNkundla Ephakamileyo. IAmerican Bar Association inikezela ngezinto zokufundisa zikawonke-wonke malunga nenkqubo esemthethweni. Amaqumrhu anjenge Covinitab Liberies Union[[] anika ulwazi-amalungelo akho okukhokela kwiimeko ezahlukeneyo.

Indaleko Eqhubekayo Yomthetho Womgaqo - siseko

Umthetho womGaqo-siseko awumi ndawonye. Isizukulwana ngasinye sabagwebi sizisa iimbono ezintsha kwimibuzo emidala, kwaye iimeko ezintsha zifuna ukusetyenziswa ngokutsha kwemigaqo ehlala ihleli. Amatyala ophawu lwelizwe angamashumi eminyaka adluleyo ayaqhubeka ephembelela izigqibo zangoku, ngelixa imigaqo yanamhlanje iza kubumba indlela yokucinga esemthethweni kwiminyaka ezayo.

Ukwenziwa kweNkundla ePhakamileyo kutshintsha ngokuhamba kwexesha njengoko oomongameli bemisela amatyala amatsha, okunokwenzeka kutshintshe ulungelelwano lwezimvo zeNkundla nendlela yokutolika umGaqo-siseko. Ezi inguqulelo zingakhokelela ekubhukuqeni kwemizekelo, ekuvulweni kwesiseko semfundiso entsha, okanye ulwandiso okanye ukudityaniswa komGaqo-siseko.

Indlela Yokutolika Edityanisiweyo

Abagwebi basebenzisa iindlela ezahlukeneyo zokutolika komGaqo-siseko, ukusuka kwintsingiselo yokuqala (ijolise kwintsingiselo yantlandlolo yomGaqo-siseko) ukuya kukuphila ngomgaqo-siseko (ukugqala umGaqo-siseko njengolungelelanayo kwiimeko ezitshintshiweyo). Ezi ndlela zikhuphisanayo zikhokelela kwiziphumo ezahlukeneyo ezibandakanya amalungiselelo afanayo omgaqo-siseko, kunye nolungelelwano phakathi kwezi mpembelelo zentanda-bulumko ezithi zibe ziziphawuli neziyiphi imigaqo abazimiselayo.

Ubungqina Bomthetho Notshintsho Olusemthethweni

Ngoxa iinkundla zinendima ebalulekileyo ekutolikeni umthetho, abemi, abalawuli nabameli bonke bezinto zinegalelo kwindaleko esemthethweni. Ukucela abameli abaya kumisela abagwebi, ukuxhasa imibutho evakalisa amatyala abalulekileyo, ukusebenza kumatyala ejaji, nokuba nenxaxheba kwintetho yesidlangalala ngemibandela engokwasemthethweni konke kuyindlela abantu abanokuphembelela ngayo ukuphuhliswa komthetho.

Amatyala okuphawula ifashoni adla ngokuqala ngabantu abaqhelekileyo abangafuni ukwamkela okungekho sikweni .[1] URosa Park angavumiyo ukuyeka ukuphatha uduladula, uClarence Earl Gideon ubhala isicelo esentolongweni, uOrrever Brown ucela ingxengxezo kwisikolo sentombi yakhe. Ezi zenzo zomntu ngamnye zenkalipho, zidibene nokuzinzisa intlalo-ntle, zidala iimeko zokuguqula okusemthethweni.

Ukukhangela Phambili: Ikamva Lemiba Yophawu Lwasezweni

Iinkupho eziza kuchaza amatyala encopho yembali ngomso ziyavela namhlanje. Imibuzo malunga nobuchule bokuyila nokungalingani, umlinganiselo wokuthetha ngokukhululekileyo kwimigangatho yezentlalo-ntle, ulungelelwaniso phakathi kokhuseleko lwesizwe kunye nelungelo lobuqu, amalungelo ezizukulwana ezizayo malunga nokhuseleko lwemekobume, kunye nokusetyenziswa kwemigaqo-siseko kwizakhiwo zentsapho ezintsha kunye nobugcisa bokuvelisa inzala yonke imiba ekhoyo ukwenzela izigqibo zembali zexesha elizayo.

Njengoko ibutho labantu liguquka, iinkundla ziza kuqhubeka zichaza amalungiselelo omgaqo-siseko ngokuqwalasela iimeko ezintsha, ubugcisa, nokuqonda okutsha. Ezinye izigqibo ziya kwandisa amalungelo nokukhusela, ngoxa ezinye zinokuwaxina. Ingxoxo eqhubekayo phakathi kweenkundla, iindlu zowiso-mthetho, kunye noluntu iza kulawula indlela imigaqo yomgaqo-siseko esebenza ngayo kwiingxaki ezivelayo.

Isiphelo: Impembelelo Ehlala Ihleli Yezigqibo Zokugweba

Amatyala abonisa impembelelo enkulu enokubangelwa zisigwebo somthetho ebantwini. Ukususela kwizikolo ukuya kutsho kumalungelo abanokuwaqinisekisa xa bebanjiwe, ukususela ekukhuselweni ekucalulweni ukusa kwimida yokuthetha ngokukhululekileyo, izigwebo zenkundla zibumba isiseko esisemthethweni ekuthi kuso ubomi bemihla ngemihla.

Ukuqonda la matyala kunye nemiphumo yawo kunceda abemi baqonde indlela inkqubo yomthetho esebenza ngayo, bawaqonde amalungelo neembopheleleko zabo, baze babe nenxaxheba ngokunempumelelo kulawulo lwedemokhrasi. Nangona iinkundla kuphela zingenakuzicombulula iingxaki zentlalo ezintsonkothileyo, izigqibo zabo zimisela imigaqo ebalulekileyo, zikhusele amalungelo asisiseko, zibonelele nakumacebo abo bafuna okusesikweni.

Ibali lamatyala aphawula iziganeko zeziganeko zembali liyibali elichaza indlela intlalo eziwachaza ngayo kwaye zikhusele ngayo amalungelo, ulungelelwano, kunye nokutshintsha kwemigaqo ehlala ihleli kwiimeko ezitshintshayo. Libali eliqhubeka lityhilwa kwimeko nganye entsha, nkcazelo nganye entsha, kunye nolwazi olutsha ngoko kufunwa kokusesikweni. Ngokubandakanyeka kule nkqubo eqhubekayo ```enzaliseko ngemfundo, ubugcisa, okanye ubumi obunolwazi olunolwazi olusuka nje olunolwazi olunolwazinzi olunento ngendaleko yomthetho, nokulandela ibutho labantu elinobulungisa.