Imfundiso Yokuhlahlela: Imvukelo Yenkulungwane Yama - 20 Kumanyano LwaseMerika

Imfundiso yeNgqungquthela imele njengenye yezona nkqubela-phambili zitshintshayo kumthetho-siseko waseMelika, iphinda iphinde itshintshe ulwalamano phakathi korhulumente worhulumente kunye namazwe. Enyanzelweni yayo, imfundiso igqiba ukuba ngawaphi amalungiselelo eBhili yamaLungelo , yaye ekuqaleni yayinenjongo yokunyanzela urhulumente wesizwe kuphela. Le ndaleko isebenza kurhulumente kunye noorhulumente basekuhlaleni kunyaka weshumi elinesine loLawulo. Ukususela kwinkulungwane yamashumi amabini, iNkundla ePhakamileyo iye yaqhubeka i "yandisa" uninzi lwale miqobo, yandisa inkululeko yabantu kwaye yaphinda yaphinda yaluphinda-phinda ulungelelaniso lwamandla kwinkqubo yorhulumente. Le ndaleko, kude kungabi sisiganeko esinye, ingumphicotho, iqhutywa, inkqubela-lwano, i-prosoluvo, i-culo, iqhubekeka-ntlalo, iintanda-mthetho kunye neengxoxo zezobupolitika.

Imvelaphi: Ukusuka KuBarron Ukuya KuMphetho - melo Weshumi Elinane

Imfundiso yeNkundla ePhakamileyo ayizange iphume kwisiseko esingenanto. Imvelaphi yayo yobulumko ikwiziphumo zemfazwe yamakhaya kunye nokumkelwa koMphetho-mda weshumi elinesine ngo1868. Phambi koko, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yayisithi isigqibo seNkundla ePhakamileyo Barron v. Baltimore [1833] [iiiisiseko se-i-i-intshi]) iqiniselwe ngokuqinileyo ukuba iBhiligcustom esebenzayo isebenza kurhulumente wesizwe kuphela, hayi kumazwe. IJaji eyintloko uJohn Marshall yaqikelelwa ukuba le miqatha yayimiselwe njengemiqathango yesizwe, hayi kwigunya elikhoyo. Oku kwakuthetha ukuba imeko imele, umzekelo, ukuseka okanye ukuphangandwa kwempahla ngaphandle kwentlawulo, ixesha elide njengoko ivumela umgaqo wayo.

IsiHlanzo seshumi elinesine saguqula umgaqo-siseko. Amalungelo ayo okanye amaGawulayo ka-Claus, i-Act Procession Claus, kunye ne-Actal Providement Claus yayilelwe ukukhusela amakhoboka asandul' ukukhululwa kwingcinezelo karhulumente. Noko ke, kwiNdlu yeNdlu ye- iCasers [1873], iNkuNkundla Ephakamileyo yawakhupha ngokunempumelelo amalungelo okanye i-Immunion Claus, ibambe ukuba ikhusele kuphela isethi encinane yamalungelo obumi besizwe (njengelungelo lokucela isicelo solawulo). Esi sigqibo savala ucango kwindlela ecacileyo yokusebenzisa amalungelo kaBill kumazwe ngaloo mali. Endaweni yoko, iNkuNkuvo yajika kwi-Oxption Claus, ethetha ukuba inqandalk'uniza ingu, ingulowo wobomi, okanye inguwongamele ingulo-mthetho.

Kangangamashumi eminyaka, iNkundla yalwa noluvo lokuba i-Umthetho ka-Celasleas ingasetyenziswa ukuquka iziqinisekiso ezingqalileyo zeBhili-Malungelo. Hurtado v. California [1884], yala ukucela amagosa aphezulu agwebayo, ukhuseleko olufunyenwe kwiSigqibo sesihlanu soMgqibo. Imbono eyaxhaphakileyo yayiyilwa yingcamango ebhetyebhetyebhethekileyo ebhekisa kwimigaqo esisiseko yemithetho esesikweni, hayi kumalungiselelo akhasitho-sibhozo ee. Oku kushiywe kukuchaza ngenkululeko engakumbi ukuchaza iindlela zabo zolwaphulo-mthetho kunye nenkululeko yoluntu.

ICANDELO: I-Express

Incam yotshintsho yafika ekuqaleni kwenkulungwane yamashumi amabini, njengoko iNkundla yaqalisa ukuqaphela ukuba amanye amalungelo ayebaluleke kakhulu kangangokuba aye "ekhokele kwingcamango yenkululeko eyomelelweyo" kwaye ngoko ke kufuneka akhuselwe kwisenzo sikarhulumente. Le ngcamango, eyaziwa njenge ekhetha ukuqulunqwa [, ngokuthe ngcembe, ifumene ulwamkelo. Impumelelo yokuqala enkulu yayiyiyo v. [FLT] glow v. New York[[FLT] [[25]] [25], apho iNkukhundla, ngaphandle kokugqiba ngokupheleleyo, inkululeko yokuqalisa kwentetho esetyenziswayo kumthetho oqhelekileyo. Nangona iNkundla yeSigqeqengqelo yaxhasa ukukholelwa komthetho wolwaphulo-mthetho waseNew York, ukuvulwa komthetho wolwaphulo-mthetho wexesha elizayo, ukusetyenziswa kocaphulo lwexesha elizayo.

Umendo Ocothayo: Ityala Eliyintloko Lenkulungwane Yama - 20

Ukususela ngo-1920 ukuya koo1960, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yaba nenxaxheba kwinkqubo edibanisa inxalenye enye yasekunene ngexesha, ngetyala. Le ndlela, ixhaswe nguJaji Benjamin Cardozo kwaye kamva nguJaji Hugo Black (Okanye Mnyama ocetyisiweyo uphela ngokubandakanya namalungelo okanye ngeImmunies Clause), yavelisa iqumrhu elityebileyo lomthetho elathi ngo1936 landisa ukhuseleko lwamazwe kumazwe.

Ukukhulula Ukuhlaziywa Kokuqala

Emva Gitlow, iNkundla ngokukhawuleza yaquka enye inkululeko yokuGqiniswa kokuqala. Nearbbb Minnesota[[31]]) yasebenzisa iFree Place Clause ukuphelisa umthetho wesizwe owawuthintele iphephandaba ekupapasheni. [[FLT:] Cantell v.[FLT][FL:][FLT][FLD]] [[5] [1940]) yaquka ukunikezelwa kwenkonzo ye-Free Execlas, ukukhusela ityala lonqulo. V]. ibhodi yemfundo yemfundo [FLT] [FLT] [FLT] [7] [47] ekumisweni kobugraclay, enokuthi ingakwazi ukudluliswa "ukulwa kwemithetho ecacileyo yezonqulo] namhlanje.

Ukukhuselwa Kwezaphuli - mthetho

Inkundla yaseWarren (1953-1969) yajolisa ngaphezulu ulwando oluphawulekayo lokubandakanya, ngokukodwa kwinkqubo yolwaphulo-mthetho. Ngaphambi kweli xesha, amazwana aye akhululeke kakhulu ukumisela eyawo imithetho yokuphendla, ukuncina, kunye nokuvavanya. Oko kwatshintshwa ngothotho lwemimiselo eyingqikelelo:

  • [FLT]] Mapp v. Ohio (1961): INkundla yaquka ukhuseleko loMhla-mva wesine ekuphandeni okungekho ngqiqweni nasekuxhuzulweni, kwaye, ngokubalulekileyo, yasebenzisa umthetho wokususwa kwetyala kwinkundla. Ubungqina obufunyenwe ngokungekho mthethweni ngamapolisa abunakuphinda busetyenziswe kwityala lolwaphulo-mthetho, ukutshintsha okukhulu komthetho womthetho.
  • Gideon v. Wainwright (1963): Esi sigqibo samanyeneyo siquka uLawulo lweSithandathu lwamalungelo okunika icebiso, sifuna ukuba kunikwe amagqwetha abamangalelwa abangenakukwazi ukuhlawula omnye kwiimeko zetyala. Umthetho waguqula iinkqubo zokhuselo lukawonke-wonke kwaye uqinisekisa ukuba iimvavanyo ezifanelekileyo zifuna umelo olunentsingiselo.
  • [[NTLT:0] Mira v. Arizona (1966): Ngelixesha ingamiselwanga ngokungqongqo ityala (isebenzisa imigangatho yesizwe kumthetho worhulumente kunye nomthetho wokunyanzelisa ngaphantsi kweMbeko yesihlanu neyeSithandathu), [[FLT:] Mira yamisa izilumkiso ngoku ngoku ngoku ngoku ngoku ngokuchasene nolwahlulo-luvo, ezimele zilandelwe zizo zonke izinto ezithethwayo.
  • [FLT][FUNT:1] v. Louisiana (1968): Waquka uHlaziyo lweSithandathu nelungelo lokuqulunqa umphetho-mda kwityala labagwebi abanzulu, ufuna amazwana ukunikezela ngejaji kubantu abathandathu ubuncinane kwiimvavanyo ezinjalo.

Ezinye izibonelelo ngexesha eliphakathi koMphetho-Mgaqo wesihlanu waquka uknaye lweSigqibo sokuQhubelana ([FLT: 0]] [Malloy v. Hogan, 1964]; ilungelo lokujongana namangqina ([[]] Pointerv. Texas, 1965; ekunene kwilingo ekhawulezileyo ([[FLT:]4]]] Klopefer v. [Ntlambo[[FLT], 1967]]; ekunene ukwenza inkqubo yokufumana amangqina (]]]], , , .[FLT], .[5]) iNt.[5]

Uhlaziyo Lwesibini

Isantya sokuqukumbela sithoba emva konyaka ka 1970, kodwa asizange siyeke ngokupheleleyo. Omnye umsantsa ophawulekayo wasala: uLawulo lwesibini lwamalungelo okugcina nokuphatha izixhobo. Kwiminyaka engamashumi eminyaka, iinkundla ezisezantsi zacinga ukuba uHlaziyo lwesibini aluzange lusebenze kumaphondo, luxhomekeke kwityala lokuqala lama-20-nkulu, United States v. Cruickshank[[FLT][12] [18]] [1876], oluthi lweNkukholelwa ukuba ilungelo lokuphatha izixhobo alilo ilungelo lobumi besizwe. Oku kwatshintshwa ku-[FLT] v[FLD].[FLT] [FLT] [iright] [iced .[4] kumthetho othenjiweyo, umgaqo weNkunye indlela esezantsi yeNkuchaza ngokuzelelekileyo i-Cequast Celcius] kwiN, u-Active "ult, u-Foffast] kumashumi amashumi eminyaka amashumi eminyaka angamashumi angamashumi eminyaka ahlukeneyokunye ahlukeneyokunye

Ngokufanayo, ukuqukwa kwe-Sradived Recons Claus e-Aleth Recomplives Claus kwangena kwi-Timbs v. Indiana (2029), xa iNkundla yagqiba ngamxhelo mnye ukuba urhulumente noorhulumente basekuhlaleni abanakukwazi ukukhupha imali eninzi, efana nokungalingani nolwaphulo-mthetho. Eli tyala laqinisekisa kwakhona ukuba kwanelungiselelo elisebenza kumacandelo limele lichazwe ngokuqhubekayo.

Amalungiselelo Angeyonxalenye: Ambalwa Akhethekileyo

Phezu kwako nje ukutshayelwa okubanzi kokuququzelelwa, iBhili yeSiqinisekiso samaLungelo embalwa ayikaqukwa. Ukwalelwa kweSihlalo soHlaziyo sesithathu [[FLT: 0] iKhafulimfono-mgamshelwano [iSithintelo seSine seSihlalo] [iSibonelelo se-Frange] [ii-Scostado] v. [FLT [FLT], 1884]) ayizange isetyenziswe kumazwe; mhlawumbi ayikhange isetyenziswe imiyalelo emininzi ephambili yokuchotshelwa kunemiqatha yetyala. I-Gazekethi ye-Gazenterfti inelungelo lokugweba eliphezulu kwityala elingaphezulu lee-R2065 ayikhange ingeniswe, intsingiselo yayo iyakwazi ukumisela imithetho yayo yokuvavanyaniswa kwemi, kanti i-891 ye-GenelGenestrivelvel kungazange kusetyenziswe kwiNkugnes, nangona ikhotyiswe ngokuquluelwayoku.

Ezi zinxaxhi zigxininisa uhlobo olukhethiweyo lokuququzelela. Inkundla ayilwamkelanga i-"amanqaku emali enkqubo exhaswe nguMgwebo omnyama, oza kusebenzisa onke amalungiselelo eBhili yamaLungelo. Endaweni yoko, ixhomekeke kwi-Udweliso lweNkqubo ka-Claus nohlalutyo lwetyala lokuba ilungelo lingundoqo kusini na kwinkululeko na kokusesikweni.

Impikiswano ye projekti: Ii-vs zokukhetha. Iyonke Imposiso

Imfundiso yeNkundla isoloko ingumhlaba wedabi elikhuphisanayo kwiingcamango zokukhuphisana ngotoliko lomgaqo-siseko. Abaxhasi be abakhethayo , ebeyiyindlela elawulayo yokuqhuba iNkundla, baphikisa ngokuthi ivumela ubhedu, ukuhlonela umahluko worhulumente ngexa ikhusela inkululeko engundoqo. Abagxeki, noko, babonisa ukuba ukuququzelela okukhethiweyo kuye kwasetyenziswa ngokungaguquguquki, ngamanye amaxesha kwandisa amalungelo kwaye ngamanye amaxesha ukungavumi ukwenza njalo ngokusekelwe kwiimbono zobulungisa zoko "Fzumida ."

Ukuququzelelwa kwento ekhoyo, njengoko kukhuthazwa nguMgwebi Omnyama, kungadibanisa urhulumente omnye weMigangatho yamaLungelo njengorhulumente wezwe, kususe ukungaqondakali. Mnyama waphikisa ukuba amalungelo okanye ii-Immunite Claus zaziyinjongo yokuqala ukufezekisa oku, kwaye indlela yeNkundla ekhethayo yadala imigangatho engekho semthethweni yamalungelo. Ngelixesha idityanisiweyo ingazange inyanzele uninzi, iyaqhubeka njengesikhundla esinempembelelo, kutshanje ivuselulwe nguJastical Clarence Thomas, othe ukuba amalungelo okanye u-Immino Claus u-Im Claus isisi sisithulo.

Indlela yesithathu, egqwethekileyo isetyenziswa ukuchaza amatyala apho iNkundla isebenzisa khona iBhili yamaLungelo kurhulumente wezwe ngokubamba ukuququzelela ekusebenzeni kwesizwe okanye kuMphetho-mva weshumi elinesine. Umzekelo, ilungu elilinganayo lokhuseleko lweMgangatho wesiHlamlo sesihlanu (iNdlela ka-Claus Bolling v. Trappe]] imfundiso yokubuyisela ulawulo, iqinisekisa ukuba urhulumente worhulumente ubotshelelwe ngokhuseleko olulinganayo lwezo zimendo ze-Gradientsmentieting.

Impembelelo Ekukhululweni Kwabemi BaseMerika

Isiphumo esisebenzisekayo sokungeniswa sinzulu. Ngaphambi kokuba kungenelwe, iimeko zinga---- kwaye ezininzi zenze/ukungahambelani nomthetho okuya kuba ngoku: ukuseka iicawa ezisemthethweni, ukuphengulula ngaphandle kwemvume, ukuzama abamangalelwa ngaphandle kwecebiso, kunye nesohlwayo senkohlakalo. Ukubekwa kwesiseko senkululeko yasekuhlaleni, ukuqinisekisa ukuba nokuba umntu uhlala phi, bafumana ukhuseleko olunye olusisiseko kwinginingi yorhulumente.

Oku kuhlaziywa kwesizwe akukhange kungabi nampikiswano. Abahlalutyi abasuka kwilungelo lezobupolitika baye baphikisa ngelithi ukubandakanya amandla aphakathi kwijaji yephondo, ukucukuceza ulawulo lwesizwe kunye nokwenziwa kwesigqibo sedemokhrasi. UJaji John Marshall Harlan II, umzekelo, wachasana kwiNkundla yakwaWarren, ukulumkisa ukuba iNkundla yayiguqula iBhili yamaLungelo ibe yi "umbhalo wenkqubo yolwaphulo-mthetho" kumaphondo. Ngasekhohlo, abanye abaphengululi baphikisa ngelithi ukudityaniswa kwemithetho akuhambanga ngokwaneleyo, ishiya iindawo ezifana neziphumo zemali, iimali, kunye nenkululeko yezoqoqosho yokulawula.

Kungakhathaliseki ukuba ubani ucinga ntoni, iNjongo yoQhobo-zincwadi ingundoqo womthetho wale mihla womgaqo-siseko waseMerika. Iguqule iBhili yamaLungelo ukusuka kumthetho-siseko olawulayo osisithintelo kurhulumente wezwe ukuba ube lucwangciso olubanzi lokhuseleko kumntu ngamnye kuwo onke amanqanaba karhulumente. Le ndaleko ibonisa utshintsho olunzulu ekuqondeni: ukuba inkululeko eqinisekiswe ngumGaqo-siseko ayinakuxhomekeka kwimida yezo mithetho.

Uphuhliso Lwenkulungwane Ye - 21 Neenkcubeko Zexesha Elizayo

Uninzi lweNkundla ePhakamileyo oluthe tye kwiminyaka yakutshanje luye lwaqhubeka lusebenzisa ukudibanisa, nangona kusoloko kungalindelekanga. McDonald v. Chicago (2010) [0]) [0]) yayibalasele ngokuba ngobuninzi beSindululo sesibini esimalunga nokuququkwa ngokwaso. Timbs v. Indianaia [2029], iNkuko yenze into evumelanayo, kodwa uThomas wasebenzisa imbono yakhe ukuphinda kwakhona ukuba u-phinda u-phinda-phinda u-phinda-phinda-phinda uluvo lwakhe okanye u-Imtunity Claus Claus] luzi siseko esichaneyo sokuququluko [ia] ukuthatha imfundiso kwakhona.

Omnye umbuzo ovulekileyo ngowokuba iNkundla inokuthi iquke ilungelo lokugcina nokuphatha izixhobo ze-odwa ngaphaya kwekhaya ( iNew York State Rifle & Lamp; Pistol Association v. Breen[[FLT:]], 2022], elishiyeke kwinkupho esezantsi yeenkundla kodwa engabandakanyeki ukuququzelelwa kwemida yempiliso), okanye iinxalenye zeSinyusi okanye i-Stransmility Bail Classille zizakugcinwa zifanelekile. Inkundla ishiye kunokwenzeka ukuba amanye amalungelo angahlukaniswangacacimi kwiBhili yamaLungelo , njengokunga ekunene okanye ekunene ukuya kwi-ngasese. [kusetyenziswa okubini kwemeko engundoqo], nangona i-Foglovrea).[2004]

Ukufundwa okubhekele phaya kokuqukunjelwa, uhlolo olunzulu lwembali lweziko lolwazi lwemithetho lunika ushwankathelo olufutshane. [[FLT:]] Iprojekthi ye-Oyez[ inika ityala lokushwankathela iinjongo ezininzi zezigqibo ezingundoqo. Kwintsokotho enzulu yembali, bona u-Akhil Reedmar’s [[FLT:]] IBhili yamaLungelo: ne-Constantion [UPlate University, 1998], ehlola intsingiselo yokuqala ye-14 KGramgamganiso.

Isiphelo

Imfundiso yoHlahlo-lwazi lweNkundla ePhakamileyo ayimi ngamaxesha ahlukeneyo. Njengoko ukuqanjwa kweNkundla ePhakamileyo kutshintsha-tshintshayo kwaye kuphakama imibuzo emitsha ngokuphathelele ukuzimela, ubugcisa, namandla karhulumente, le mfundiso iza kuqhubeka iguquka. Okwaqala njengokufundwa okumxinwa, ukumadolw'iimpumlo okulawula i - 145th Amentement Reformation iye yaba yinjini enamandla yokunyanzeliswa kwamalungelo esizwe. Inkqubo yokuqulungela ulawulo olunokhetho lweziko lweziko-lulo, inxibelelane iBhibheno yamaLungelo ngaphaya kweminyaka elikhulu, idibaniswe kulo lonke umgaqo-mthetho, iqinisekisa ukuba inkululeko yaseMelika ayisosithembiso nje soluntu kodwa iyinto yokwenene kubo bonke abemi, akukho namnye umcimbiswano wezomthetho obalulekileyo ohlala uhleli apho.