Ukwahlukana Okuyimbali: IBhili yamaLungelo Nenyathelo Lesizwe

UMgaqo-siseko weUnited States, njengoko wawubhaliwe ekuqaleni, waseka urhulumente wamagunya adwelisweyo. IBhili yamagunya azimeleyo. ``IBhili yamaLungelo'''''. Iminyaka elishumi yokuqala emva koko yongezwa ukubeka imida ecacileyo kwelo gunya lezwe. Phantse inkulungwane, ezi zikhuseli azizange zisebenze kurhulumente. Ummi owenziwe wakhululekileyo umlomo wendlu karhulumente wangenamdla phantsi kweSiphengululo Sokuqala. Le nkqubo idibeneyo yamalungelo yashiya abantu besengozini yokukhuselwa, umsantsa ongenakuchazwa ngokupheleleyo de kube sekuhlaziywe kwe-1459th Demetrimension kunye nokuphuhliswa komphumo olulandelayo [[FLT:] [FLT]] eqululweyo.

Isigqibo seNkundla Ephakamileyo yowe-1833 Broron v. Baltimore yaqinisa olu qiniso. uJohn Barron wayenendawo yokuthutha iposi eBaltimore eyaba nempumelelo xa isixeko sasiphambukisa imisinga yomlambo ngexesha lolwakhiwo lwesitrato. Wagweba, ephikisa isixeko, ethatha impahla yakhe ngaphandle kwembuyiselo, ephula umthetho weSigqibo sesihlanu. IJaji enkulu uJohn Marshall, ebhala inkundla yetyala elingqukuva, wayekholelwa ukuba iBhili yamaLungelo isebenza kurhulumente karhulumente wesizwe kuphela, hayi kumazwe. Isigqibo sashiya abanini bempahla kwaye, ngokongeza, bonke abemi bephantsi kokusebenza ngaphandle kwentethelelo babala kwintelekelelo yokuqala yeshumi lemali. Oku kwathetha ngotshintsho, ukubiza utshintsho lwezikomgqesho-gral

UMthetho We - 14 WezoHlaziyo: Isigqibo Sokuguquka

Emva kwemfazwe yamakhaya, iBhunga lacebisa ukuba kuqinisekiswe ukuba amazwe awayengamakhoboka akanakuwakhulula amalungelo awo asisiseko. Ukusetyenziswa kwawo ngo1868 kwasungula ulwandiso olutsha kumandla orhulumente. Icandelo lokuqala lokulungisa lavakalisa ukuba akukho rhulumente “oza kuphelisa namnye umntu wobomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla, ngaphandle kwenkqubo elindelekileyo yomthetho; okanye akhanyele nawuphi na umntu onegunya lokukhusela imithetho efanayo. "Ulwimi lwe-CIdrosomment [[[FLT:]] i-Bastiod Classss [] yaba yinqwelo-m yothutho ephambili eyasetyenziswa nguBill wamalungelo.

Kodwa amandla apheleleyo oMphetho-weshumi elinesine awuzange ufunyanwe ngoko nangoko. Ityala leNdlu ePhakamileyo [1873], iNkundla ePhakamileyo yalunciphisa kakhulu umlinganiselo we [ Privigegeges okanye i-Immunities Claus [[[FLT:]], ibambe ukuba ikhusele amalungelo afanele ukubakho kurhulumente wesizwe (i-a encinci). Oku kutolika kuvala ucango ukudibanisa ucango malunga nomthetho omalunga neminyaka eli-15, de kube kukuvuselelwa okungaphelelanga kwi [FLT:]. [FLD] [FF] [5] [5] [5].[5] [iiindlela eyaziwa ngokuthe k'uthe k'uthengwa yi-Fomatika]

I-Incorpoution vs. Iyonke I-Icorporation

Iingcamango ezimbini ezikhuphisanayo zavela ekuqaleni kwenkulungwane yamashumi amabini. IJaji uHugo Brandeis kwaye kamva uMgwebi uWilliam Brennan waxhasa “ukuququzelela” – ingcamango yokuba i-Umthetho weNkqubo kaCelas kufuneka usebenzise iBhili yeMalungelo ka-Claus iphela kumazwe, kwintshukumo enye ekhukulileyo. UJaji Louis Brandeis kunye nabanye, nokokuba wakhetha indlela yolwandiliseko, ephikisa ukuba kuphela loo malungelo agqalwa “kwinkqubo yokuyila yezobulungisa eMelika." kufuneka aqululwe. Inkundla yamkela imbono yamva, ihlola ilungelo ngalinye ukufumanisa ukuba ibalulekile kusini na kwinkululeko nokulunga.

Phantsi ekhetha ukuqukwa , iNkundla ibuza: Le ndlela ilungileyo “ikholwe kwingcamango yenkululeko eyomelelweyo”? Ukuba idityanisiwe ngenkqubo ye-Celas kwaye isebenza kumazwe. Ukuba akunjalo, ekunene kuhlala kungummiselo worhulumente kuphela. Le meko ivumele iNkundla ukuba ilungelelanise ukhuseleko lwesiseko ekutshintsheni iimeko, kodwa ikwaye yacela ukugxekwa ngenxa yemithetho yayo kunye nokuguquguquka kwayo.

Iimeko zophawu lwelizwe kuHlomelo oluKhethiweyo

UMthetho Wokuqala Ohlaziyiweyo: Inkululeko Yokuthetha Neyokushicilela

[F3] [F3] kwiNkundla Ephakamileyo yadlula kumnyango wokuqukunjelwa Gitlow v. New York [1925]. uBenjamin Gitlow wabanjwa phantsi komthetho wolwaphulo-mthetho wezolwaphulo-mthetho waseNew York wokupapasha incwadana yesombutho. Wawuphikisa umthetho woMmiselo wokuQala wokukhupha iSigqibo sokuHlalisa iSigqibo sokuQala sokukhulula intetho - 'ethulelo', ngexesha elithile, wasebenzisa ngokucacileyo kwiKhonkqu. Ngenxathelo enkulu, iNkubonelo yathi “inkululeko yokuthetha neyokucinezela imigaqo ekhuselwe yiSinyulo sokuqala sokuHlaziselwa kweMpatho-siseko soluntu. [FF4] [evon] [evosesvon] [evon] [ense] kwimiqatha yodidi lokuqala lomthetho we-Es.[Foff] [east] [evost]

UMthetho Wesine Wokwenziwa Kwezono: Uphando Nezinto Ezingekho Mthethweni

ISinyuso sesine sikhusela ukuphengululwa okungekho ngqiqweni nokuxhuzula kwaye sifuna isiqinisekiso esisekelwe kwisizathu esilindelekileyo. Wolf v. Colorado [1949], iNkundla yaquka ilungelo lokukhululeka ekuphenyeni okungekho ngqiqweni, kodwa ngokuphawulekayo ayizange ifake umthetho wokuzikhulula, ofaka ubungqina obufunyenwe ngokungekho mthethweni obungenakusetyenziswa ngokusemthethweni. Oku kwakhatshwa apho abantu banokugwetywa khona ngaphandle komthetho ngaphandle komthetho ngaphandle kokuhlola izinto ezimdaka emva kovavanyo lwasekhaya ngaphandle kogunyaziswa. Inkundla ephakamileyo ingumthetho elawulayo. Inkundla yatshintsha indlela yomthetho efunekayo kwi-[FT.[2] V.[FG.[FG.3] [FT]] [evot]) ngokufanelekileyo ukuvulelwa kwendlela yomthetho ogunyazisayo.[5]

IsiHlaliso sesihlanu: Ukuzitshintsha-tshintsha Nokuzifaka Kwingozi

IsiHlaliso sesihlanu siquka ukhuseleko nxamnye nolwahlulo, iingozi eziphindiweyo, kunye nelungelo lokufumana izilumkiso eziphezulu. Esona sikhululo sidumileyo senzeka ku imanda v. Arizona [[6], (iii-66], esebenzisa indlela yokuzikhupha ngokwayo kumazwe yaze yamisa izilumkiso ze-Mirda. kodwa imposiso ephindwe kabini yafakwa ekuqaleni ]] ben v. Mary [6]], enikezela ngemimiselo ende [[FLT:]] [4]) engenakusetyenziswa luncedo.[5]

IsiHlomelo Sesithandathu: Ukukhuselwa Okufanelekileyo Kwetyala

Imeko ezimbalwa zifana nento eyenzekayo ekungeneni njenge-'[FLT' njengendlela elungileyo'[FF: 0] . Wainwright v (1963). UClarence Earl Gideon watyholwa ngokuqhekeza iholo yequla eFlorida. Ukungakwazi ukunikela igqwetha, wacela icebo, kodwa umthetho wase Florida wanikela icebo kuphela kwityala elikhulu. UGidiyon wazikhusela kwaye wabekwa ityala. Kwisicelo esibhalwe ngesandla sesandla kwiNkuNkundla ephakamileyo, waphikisa iSithandathu sokuLamlathisa ekululekeni. Inkundla yavuma ngokuvuma, ngaphezulu kwesigqibo sangaphambili [iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiinqanawa] [FLT.[F.F.Nt.Nt.Nt.[akeleleka iNt: "iindlela elungileyo, i-fulm] [indlela esezantsi, i-amp.[ans][ans][ance] [i, i-awuhlulone

UMthetho Wesibini Wokulungiswa: Ilungelo Lomntu Omnye Lokugcina Nokuthwala Izixhobo

Kangangamashumi eminyaka, uHlaziyo lwesibini aluzange luququzelelwe kuba iNkundla ayizange igqibe ukuba ikhusele umntu ngamnye onelungelo lokuzimela ngokwakhe kwinkonzo yomkhosi. Ethi yatshintsha kwi Diliture of Columbia v. Helder [2008] [2008], eyayikholelwa ukuba uLawulo lwesibini lukhusela ilungelo lomntu ngamnye ukuba abe nesixhobo sokulwa somntu ngamnye esizimeleyo sobuqu esizimeleyo kwinkonzo yemikhosi. Kwiminyaka emibini kamva, Mcdomed v. [[FLT][3] [20:]] [20]]), iNkukholelwa ukuba olu lungelo “lulo luyilungelo lohlobo lokuzikhulula nokusebenza koorhulumente abasekuhlaleni kwi-Cesakhesa. Umthetho wobuGenethi olunobumba i-Algromesclay'iption [F]

Uhlaziyo Lwesibhozo: Inkohlakalo Nesohlwayo Esingaqhelekanga

Ukukhusela ekusebenziseni ibheyile eninzi nesohlwayo esingaqhelekanga kwafakwa ngothotho lweemeko. Ukwalela ulwalelo lwesohlwayo esinenkohlakalo nesingaqhelekanga kwasetyenziswa kumaphondo Robinson v. California [[FLT] [1962]], okwaphelisa umthetho owenza ukukhotyokiswa kweziyobisi zibe lulwaphulo-mthetho. URuth Ginsburg wabhala iNkukhuselo olupheleleyo ngokuchasene nentengo yentengiso eninzi “ifakruthiswe yi-Mphetho we-Mphembelelo ye-Mphetho-me, yafakwa kwi-[[FLT] ye-TY] engundoqo. [FTYTY] v. [FLTY:3]. [2010]). IJajini elibelo elininzi lomthetho wokuthengisa iThin, labhala iNkukhuselwa kwiNkupho yeNkupho yomthetho elungileyo, i-Roffrentshi yoMkhosi yalo, i-R4, i-U. Ngokuvuvuvuvu

Isiphumo Somahluko Okhethiweyo Kumalungelo omGaqo-siseko weRhulumente

Iflore, hayi ukukhutshelwa: Ukhuseleko lwelizwe lungakhupha uMasipala

Inkalo ebalulekileyo yokuzibandakanya okukhethiweyo kukuba “umthetho omtsha olawulayo. Umzekelo, uMphetho wokuqala uyawuthintela umva wentetho, kodwa eminye imiqathango yombuso inikela ukhuseleko olubanzi lwemisebenzi ecacileyo, njengenkululeko kwizinto ezithengwayo. Inkundla ePhakamileyo, exhomekeke kwimithetho-siseko yelizwe, isebenzisa amalungelo entetho yangasese nangona iUnity State. Inkundla ephakamileyo ayiwufuni ([FLT]: F2]). [2]

Ukuchazwa kweNkundla yaseRhulumente kuguqula Amalungelo

Iinkundla eziphakamileyo zelizwe ziye zavelisa iimfundiso ezizimeleyo zokuchaza umgaqo-siseko wazo, maxa wambi zisuka kwimodeli karhulumente. Oku kuye kwabaluleka ngokukhethekileyo kwinkqubo yolwaphulo-mthetho. Ngokomzekelo, amaphondo amaninzi aye akwala “ukholo olulungileyo” kumthetho wokuzikhulula othi iNkundla ePhakamileyo yase-U.S. yamkelwe ku iUnited States] v. Le Leya[FLT] i-[19984] [iiii-styfile] [19984]. La maphondo akholelwa ukuba ubungqina obufunyenwe kwisiqinisekiso sokufuna esingekho semthethweni obungalawulekiyo bumele bucinezelwe, nokuba amapolisa ayenze ngokholo olulungileyo. Kummandla wenkululeko, inani elimangalisayo lamazwe elinokukhuselwa ngokungaze lihlale liphile kwintengo yentengo eninzi, kodwa lingenawo nangasayi kukhuseleko oluninzi. [F.]

Umanyano Nenkxwaleko Enamandla

Ukukhetha ukusetyenziswa kwezixhobo kugxekwe ngokuthoba ulawulo lwesizwe ngokubeka imigangatho efanayo yesizwe. Kodwa ikwayihlonela isakhiwo solawulo lwezwe ngokuvumela amazwe ukuba alinge ngemiqathango yawo engokomGaqo-siseko (ngoxa nje engayaphuli imigangatho karhulumente. Olu xinezeleko lunempembelelo lugcina indima yeenkundla zikarhulumente ekucombululeni inkululeko yabantu ngabanye. Amazwe angenza njengeeklabhu yolawulo-lulawulo-lulawulo-luphezulu, avavanya ezinye iindlela ezinokuphembelela urhulumente wephondo lwephondo. Umzekelo, amazwe amaninzi sele eqaphele ilungelo lokuxhasa inkxaso yemfundo phantsi kwemithetho yawo phambi kwemithetho-siseko yomthetho-siseko somhlaba phambi kwe-U. Inkundla ephakamileyo ingavumi yokuzibophelele ([FLDT]][3]][3]], i-Rodrienst [Fod]], kunye no-evolunt.[3]

Ukugxekwa Neenxubusho Zexesha Elidluleyo

ISihloko samalungelo “Asezingqondweni”

Iqumrhu elikhethayo lihleli kumgwebo othi amalungelo “abaluleke kakhulu ukuwalawula. Abahlalutyi baphikisa olu vavanyo luvela ngokwemvelo kwaye bavumela iNkundla ukuba inyanzelise iinketho zayo. IJaji Hugo Black, umxhasi okhokelayo wokuququzelela okupheleleyo, ulumkisa ukuba ukuququzelela okungathintelwanga kwazizo izigwebo “ukuzula-bhadula kukhulu” ekuboneni ukuba ngawaphi amalungelo okukhuselayo. Iingxoxo zakutshanje zibonisa ukuba: iNkundla ifakele ilungelo lokuphatha izixhobo kodwa iye yala ukudibanisa ilungelo lokuzigcina zizonke ngendlela eqinisekileyo. Abanye abaphengululi baphikisa ukuba amalungelo omthetho okanye ama-Imnonizim Claske, hayi i-'ult Claus, yayiyinjongo yokusebenzisa inqwelo-mfolo, kwaye iNkuxhomekeka kwinkqubo yeNkuphetho yeNkuphesa. [Foctive] [Foctal] [Foctal:] [2]

Umsebenzi Ongashenxiswanga Wokwahlukana

Asiyonkqubo yeBhili yamaLungelo efakiweyo. ISindululo sesithathu (ikomkhulu lamajoni) asizange sifakwe kuba akukho tyala lifikeleyo kwiNkundla. Imfuneko ebalaseleyo yeNkundla yokuHlaziya iMpahla yeSihlanu ihlala ingafakwanga. Ilungelo leSeventic Amendment kwityala labachopheli-mthetho linenxalenye encinane; iNkundla ivumela ukuba amaphondo anike abagwebi iziphumo eziyinyaniso kumatyala asekuhlaleni. Amanye amalungiselelo, njengakwiNkuMdalelo oMdalelo oMbindinyana weSinyusombululo, asandul'ukufakwa nje kwityala lasekuhlaleni [iii]. Inkundla ikwathiye iphephe ukufakwa kweSibi so Amenziso ngaphandle komhla nezo, ishiya umbuzo obala ukuba usebenza kusini nakabani naka naka naka. Oku kuthe nakuchaza okusezantsi kwengxelo ngexa elizayo, ukuchaza iziphumo ezikhokelela ekulandeleni.

Amagunya Ezobupolitika Nomgaqo - siseko

Ukuzibandakanya okukhethiweyo kuhlala kuphezulu kwezobupolitika. IiJaji zeNkqutyana zisoloko zigxininisa uburhulumente kunye nokuthintela, zibuza ukuba iNkundla ifanele imisele imilinganiselo yesizwe kumaphondo. Iijaji zenkululeko zityekele ekukhuthazeni ukhuseleko olubanzi lwamalungelo abantu, zijonge ukuququzelelwa njengeyimfuneko kumgangatho wokulingana wobumi. Kodwa olu lungelelwaniso lungatshintsha kuxhomekeke ekunene: ukuququlunqena kwesibini kweSinyusi solawulo kumthetho wezwe, kodwa zimele zikhululeke ekuphuhliseni umthetho wasekuhlaleni.

Ukukhangela Kwikamva: Ikamva Lamalungelo omGaqo-siseko KaRhulumente

Isenzo sokukhetha sigqibekile ngoku; inkoliso yeBhili yamaLungelo isebenza kumazwe. Kodwa iziphumo zayo ziyaqhubeka ziguquka njengoko iNkundla ePhakamileyo icombulula umlinganiselo wetyala ngalinye eliququkisiweyo ekunene. Iityala zakutshanje ezifana Ramos v. Louisiana [2020] iqinisekisa ukuba imfuneko egqithisileyo yeSithandathu soHlaziyo-Sinyuso-Gqibo isebenza ngokuchasene nolawulo, ukuvula indlela entsha yokulungisa uphambuko olukhulu oluvunyelwe kamashumi eminyaka. uTBS v. u-Indiana [[FLT]] [FLT:] uyavuma ukuba intluvo olugqithisileyo lunokuphunyezwa ngokuchasene nolawulo, ukuvula udwendo olutsha lwendlela olunzima lweenkqubo zoluntu ezicelwcinezelayo.

Ngeli xesha, iinkundla zikarhulumente zibandakanyeka kuhlalutyo oluqinileyo lomgaqo-siseko wazo. Inkundla yaseNew York yezibheno, umzekelo, yawisa umthetho wokuba umgaqo-siseko wephondo unika ukhuseleko olomeleleyo nxamnye nolawulo olungenasiqinisekiso kuneSine Somndululo ( Abantu v. Weaver[, 2009]). Inkundla ePhakamileyo yaseWashington ibambelele ekubeni imigaqo-mgaqo-siseko karhulumente inqabele iGcize iGPS engenakukwazi ukulandelela imiyalelo engekho mthethweni naxa uvavanyo lwasemthethweni luyivumela ukuba ibe yinkqubo yesibini nje. Ezi zigqibo zimisela ukuba umthetho-gqweqweneyo ayiyo kuphela inkqubo yokukhusela amalungelo. Njengomthetho we-U.

Isiphelo

Isenzo sokukhetha sisesona sisesazulwini solawulo lwamazwe aseMelika namalungelo awomntu ngamnye. Ngenkulungwane yodabi lwetyala, iNkundla ePhakamileyo idibene neBhili yamaLungelo kwilaphu lomthetho karhulumente, iqinisekisa ukuba inkululeko esisiseko ayishiywanga kwiphulo likarhulumente. Imfundiso idale isiseko sokhuseleko olungenakuyahlula, ngelinye ixesha igumbi lolawulo. Umthetho-siseko, ngokujika, uye waba zizixhobo ezibalulekileyo zokwandisa amalungelo angaphaya komqatha wesizwe. Njengoko ukutshintsha komgaqo-siseko welizwe, ukusetyenziswa phakathi kolawulo lorhulumente kunye nokucaciswa kwesizwe kuya kuqhubeka ukuchaza amalungelo abantu baseMerika ngokwenyaniso. Ukuqonda ukusetyenziswa kolawulo akuyo nabani nabani na ofuna ukuqonda indlela yokufikelela kubomi bethu bemihla ngemihla.