Ukuqonda Isiseko Sokwahlula Okuthile

Imfundiso yokuzibandakanya ngokukhethayo imele njengenye yezona nkqubo zibalulekileyo zomgaqo-siseko eMelika. Iphendula umbuzo obalulekileyo: ngowuphi ulungiselelo lweBhili yamaLungelo oluthintela oorhulumente borhulumente, hayi urhulumente wezwe? Ngaphambi kokuba iSigqibo samaLungelo se-14th sisebenze kurhulumente wesizwe kuphela, njengoko kuqinisekiswe Barron v. Baltimore [1833]. I-antementation's Process of Religistratedment Claus, ivulile ngo1868, yadala indlela esemthethweni yokudlulisela ezi zikhuseli kumazwe. Noko ke, iNkundla ePhakamileyo ayizange yamkele ngokukhawuleza i-endla, yamkela imodensime-mme, ngokuzinkoliso oluzi.

Le ndlela iphenjelelwe kukungavisisani kweengcamango phakathi kobulungisa. Le nkqubo ayingokwenziwa nje; ifuna ukutolikwa ibinzana le 14th Amendment lisithi “kungekho naliphi na uRhulumente eliza kumhlutha nabani na ubomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla, ngaphandle kwenkqubo efanelekileyo yomthetho” ukugqiba ukuba ngawaphi amalungelo“ asekelwe kwiqhinga lokusesikweni laseMelika.” Oko kugqibela kuxhomekeke kakhulu kwintanda-bulumko yezomthetho nganye. Isiphumo sisenzo esidityaniswe ngokupheleleyo samalungelo asetyenziswayo, amanye asetyenziswa ngokuyinxenye, kwaye ambalwa asashiyeka enyanisweni.

Indlela Intanda - bulumko Eqhuba Ngayo Izigqibo Zokuthethelela

Intanda-bulumko yezeejaji inikezela ngelens apho abagwebi bafunda khona okubhaliweyo okungaqondakaliyo komgaqo-siseko. KwiNkundla ePhakamileyo, ukungavisisani ngokubandakanya okukhethiweyo kusoloko kunciphisa iimbono ezikhuphisanayo malunga nohlobo lwenkululeko, indima yembali, kunye nolwalamano olufanelekileyo phakathi kolawulo lwamagunya orhulumente nombuso. Iinkqubo ezintathu ezingundoqo zentanda-ntanda-bulumko zisoloko ziphembelela ezi zigqibo zilandelayo: [[[FLT:]] i-listrist [[FLT:]], [FLT:], [FLT]], imbonakalo yokulala komthetho womthetho [[FLT], kunye nomthetho womthetho. [[FLT:]]

Ukwahlula Unqulo Nemida Yokwahlula

Izaziso zoqobo ziphikisa ngelithi umGaqo-siseko ufanele utolikwe ngokwentsingiselo yawo yantlandlolo kawonke-wonke. . Oko kuthethwa ngumntu onolwazelelelo ngexesha lokudityaniswa kwaloo mbhalo bekuya kuba kuthetha. Abaquluneli bakudala bayathandabuza ukulwandisa amalungelo angaphaya kwalawo ayecetywe ngabaquququzeleli beSigqibo se-145. AmaJaji anjengomntu ongasekhoyo u-Anton Scalia kunye noClarence Thomas aye asoloko ewuqonda lo mbono. Babuza: Ngaba abaxhasi be-Rhoqo-mali ye-14th Demetrite bazimisele ukufunxa onke amaLungelo? Abaninzi baqalayo bathi hayi. Njengesiphumo, iimbono zokuqala zisoloko zichasa amalungelo angenayo isiseko esicacileyo sembali. Umzekelo, uThomas uchaza ukuba ukuHlundlo lwesibini alusebenzi kwiimeko ze-Celasmensmens okanye amaGenethi ze-Celmans (emous) ezingondo ezininzi ezingom ezingom ezingom ezingo zingom ezingom ezingo

Le ntanda-bulumko ikwadala uxinezeleko. Ngexa uqobo lungamisela umlinganiselo wokuququzelela, ingafuna ukuba i-odolo olukhoyo ukuba ubungqina bembali bubonise ukuba abalayishi belilungelo elithile lokusebenzisa nxamnye namazwe. McDonald v. Chicago (2010]), uJaji Thomas uvumelana noninzi ukuba uGawulayo lwesibini lusebenza kumazwe, kodwa uxhomekeke kumalungelo okanye kwinkqubo efunekayo, hayi ku-Immastian Clausle, ngenxa yokuba wayekholelwa ukuba igalelo lokuqala lwamalungelo angundoqo adityanisiweyo.

Umbhalo Nokufuna Intsingiselo Ecacileyo

Umbhalo onxulumene ngokusondeleyo nobuNqanam, ugxininisa umbhalo ocacileyo woMgaqo-siseko njengomthombo oyintloko wokutolika. IJaji echaza amagama iza kuhlola amagama e-'Umthetho Womxokelelwano ka-Claus'e ize ibuze ukuba ibinzana ngokwalo liqulethe naluphi na ulwimi malunga namalungelo athile. Ngenxa yokuba igalelo alidweli iBhili yamaLungelo, ababhali-magama basoloko begqiba ukuba umbhalo wodwa awugunyazi ukudityaniswa ngokupheleleyo. Noko ke, bangasamkela ukudityaniswa ukuba imo yesithethe, [iglow v.[FLT] Glutlow'.[[FLT:] v. [25]) okanye [FLT] IGideon. v. Winright [FLT] [3] [6], ithe isigqeqeqephu yomthetho, i-mthetho esiqinileyo, i-kachachane, i-Genelgne, iKle, ngexesha elithedmissss.

Iingcali zokubhala zithanda ukufunda okunciphileyo, phantse kobugcisa apho amalungelo “asekelwe khona.” Ziphepha iimvavanyo ezibanzi zengqondo okanye zentlalo ezifana “nomlinganiselo wesazela”, endaweni yoko zikhetha ukuzimisela ngokwembali enoba ilungelo lisekelwe ngokunzulu kwizithethe zohlanga. Le ndlela ibangela ukuba ulwandiso oluluvo luqukelwe kwizigqibo zokuququzelela.

UmGaqo-siseko Ophilayo Nomanyano Olukhulu

Abaxhasi bomGaqo-siseko ophilayo balujonga uxwebhu njengesakhiwo esinamandla esimele silungelelaniswe nokutshintsha amaxabiso abantu. Le ncuba ikhuthaza abagwebi ukuchaza i-Unit Processource Clause njengesithuthi sokukhusela iingcamango ezivelayo zenkululeko. AmaJaji anjengoWilliam Brennan, uThur Pall, uStephen Breyer, noRuth Bader Ginsburg bawuchaza kakuhle lo mbono. Kubantu abaqulukileyo amatyala, oku kudla ngokuthetha ukuphikisa ngokuququkwa ngokupheleleyo kweengcamango zokhuseleko lwamalungelo eeRhulumente/o-Rom, kwanamanye amalungelo angasetyenziswangalungelanga amalungelo afunekayo kwinkululeko kwibutho lanamhlanje.

Imeko yencopho yophawu [[FLT: 0] . . I-Rade[FLT] [1903] ibonakalisa indlela ephilayo yomgaqo-siseko, nangona ingazange iquke ukwenziwa ngokukhetheyo kwegama elithile elichaziweyo. Ngokuthe ngqo, i-Timbs v. Indianaia [2011]], iNkundla edityanisiweyo ibambelele kwelokuba uNkquluko oluNciphisayo lweSinyuko oluNgqomo oluNde-esibhozo lusebenza kumazwe. IJalambhile i-Brasko ingu-Auslabelston enxulumene nemvume ephantsi kwemiqatha, iJajini enxulumene nemvume yokuzinziwa kweNkulwa kweNkuphesa, ekwandiswayo, ekwandiswayo iBhin, elungileyo yeNkl.

I-Pragmatics kunye nokulungelelana konobumba

Ezinye izigwebi zamkela indlela elula, zilinganisa iziphumo ezisebenzisekayo zokuququzelela kunye nokushiya umbandela kumazwe. IJaji Lewis Powell noJaji Sandra Day O’Connor yaludibanisa olu hlobo. [[[FLT: 0]] Garcia v. iSan Antonio Metropolitan Transtit Aguvertit Aguver [[[FLL:1]] [1985], iNkuNkuhlalo yashiya indlela yokubeka ulawulo kwaye yamkela uvavanyo olusebenzayo. Kukukhetha, Pragmatis uyabuza: Iya kunyusa oku kulawulo lwasekunene? Izakuthi ivume uxanduva olungeyo? Luzakufuna kangakanani ulawulo olufanelekileyo kuhlanga? Oku kukhokelela kwisiphumo esiphakathi solawulo olulungeleneyo kodwa ngezo. [2]

Amatyala Abonisa Intanda - bulumko Yezaphuli - mthetho Esebenza

Indaleko yokuzibandakanya ngokukhetha inokufunyanwa ngezigqibo ezininzi apho iintandabulumko ezikhuphisanayo zazingqubana. La matyala abonisa indlela imbono yokusesikweni ehlabathini echaphazela ngayo ngokuthe ngqo enoba ilungelo lilawulwa bubuzwe kusini na.

Gitrow v. New York [1925] – Inyathelo lokuqala

.Gitlow, iNkundla yaqikelela ukuba intetho yokuGawulayo yokuqala yakhululekileyo yafakwa ngoMthetho wokuLandlwa kweMpatho weshumi elinesine, kodwa yaxhasa isiqinisekiso kuba intetho ebuzwayo yayingakhuselekanga. Oku kuququkwa kokuqala kwaba yindawo eqinileyo. Uluvo lwamaGawulayo, olwabhalwa nguJaji Edward Sanford, alukhange lubandakanyeke intanda-bulumko; lucinge ukuba i-Phoverholm Holmes yaziphikisa, iphikisa ukuba umthetho wesizwe wahluleka ukwenza “ingozi ekhoyo." intandabulumko ye-Holmeagrac nothanda ubungqongqo bodidi olucacileyo." luzakusebenzisa umgangatho wesizwe ekukhuseleni intetho yesizwe. IJajini le-nde lichaza indlela emele imbono yesizwe ebambene miyalelo ngayo kwimfazwe.

Mapp v. Ohio (1961) – Ukwahlulwa koMthetho weExclussion

yaquka ukhuseleko loMgaqo-siseko wesine wokusindeka ngokungekho ngqiqweni nokuxhuzula kunye nomthetho wawo ohamba kunye nokususa ityala kumazwe. IJaji uTom Clark uluvo lwabaninzi lwaluxhomekeke kumgaqo wokunqanda kwaye imfuneko yokufumana unyango olufanayo. Isigqibo sasilulo kululo olucacileyo lokuphumelela kumgaqo ophilayo: iNkundla yandisa ilungelo elingakhange lisetyenziswe ngaphambili, iqiqaqashe ukuba ingqibelelo yenkqubo yokusesikweni yayifuna ukuba injalo. Abagwebi uJohn Marsharlan Harlan II noFelik Rest Refuster baphikisa ukuba umthetho owenziweyo wawungengowomntu olungileyo kodwa ube unyango olufanelekileyo olungomthetho olumele lunganyanzelwanganyanzelwanganyanzelwanganyanzelwanga kwiimeko.) Intanda-ntanda-bulumko kunye nentlonelo ye-otheneyo.

Gideon v. Wainwright (1963) – Ilungelo kwiSicelo

Ngapha kwetyala langaphambili ( u-Brady v. Brady), iNkundla kwi Gideon[ yabambelela kwisigqibo seSiqendu seSithandathu sokucebisa singundoqo kwaye sisebenza kumazwe. Uluvo loMnyama lweNkundla yeqela lenqanawa oludibeneyo lusebenzise “uvavanyo lwemeko ezipheleleyo”. Umnyama wayengumntu okholelwayo ukuba iBhili yeMalungelo liphela kufuneka liquququkiswe. Uluvo lwakhe lubonisa ukuba intanda-bulumko: ayifuni imbono enokuthi iyakwazi ukuzama ngemilinganiselo eyahlukileyo yokunikela isiluleko. Imeko isoloko ichazwe njengomzekelo wendlela yokuyila imbono (uncindidity).

[[UMTL: 0] Duncan v. Louisiana (1968) – Jury Trial Trials

UGqr.Dun'uGawulayo wadibanisa ilungelo lokuchophela ityala labachopheli-tyala elinzulu. IJaji Byron White imbono yabaninzi yagxininisa ukuba ukuchotshelwa kwetyala ngabachopheli-mthetho kungundoqo kwinkqubo yejaji baseMelika. UJaji Harlan waphikisa, ephikisa ukuba i-ST Procession Claus ekwalela kuphela izenzo ezichasene “nemigaqo yenkululeko nemithetho esesikweni,” umgangatho awayekholelwa ukuba awufuni ukuvavanywa ngabacholi kwiimeko zonke. Intanda-bulumko kaHarlan yadla ngokubiza ngokuthi“ kukhethwa ngemilinganiselo ezimeleyo yesizwe” . Ngokuthe ngqo ingqungquthelana nenkoliso enkulu. Le meko ibonisa indlela umahluko wentandabulumko ovelisa ngayo iziphumo ezohlukeneyo kwana xa iziphumo zovavanyo oluqhelekileyo.

Indima Yamalungelo OMphengululo Weshumi Eline Okanye Ulawulo LukaClaus

Ngokuphindiweyo kwingxoxo emalunga nokuququzelela okukhethiweyo yindlela esecaleni edlula Priviges okanye i-Immunites Clause yeNkqutyana ye-Gradimente eyi-14neth. Saenz v. [[FLT] [1999], iNkuNkundla isebenzise igatya ukukhusela ilungelo lokuhamba. Abanye oo-Profeti kunye nabaquluneli baphikisa ngelithi, asiyiyo i-Clauscess, icet'eeee, icetyiswe ngokufanelekileyo ukuba iphinde iNkuhlela i-Lungce i-e. Ikhomba elingulwe ngoku lingenayo. Inkcawayelela i-Sainter-Ins Cases [FLT] [FFFF5] [FT5] [ith] [ison 77], i-eadiognomes, emele inguqule, emele

Ingingqi zaNgoku kunye nekamva loHlomelo Olukhethiweyo

Kwinkulungwane yama-21, iNkundla iphantse yagqiba inkqubo yokuququzelela inkoliso yamaLungelo. IsiHlaliso sesithathu asizange sifakwe, ubukhulu becala ngenxa yokuba asifane sifakelwe. IsiHlanzi Sesibini safakwa kwi McD [[[FLT:]] [2011] [[FLT:]] [2011]]. Impikiswano yentandabulumko iyaqhubeka i-[FLT] [FLT] [FLT] [5] [20] [iityala] ingumzekelo [[FLT] [iiimvukelo yetyala] [iindlela] epheleleyo yokugweba]. Umthetho womthetho wobugqhinga ifuna ityala elipheleleyo kuMkhosi womthetho [[FLT] [FLT] [5] [iiiinterrect:5] kuvavanyo oluthenjiweyo lweNt. Umbalelwanomodusolu, i-Active , i-Activesmoston [unity] [ion, i-union

Enye indawo ephumayo kuququzelelwa kwamalungelo angadweliswanga ngokucacileyo kwiBhili yamaLungelo, enje nelungelo lokutshata okanye ilungelo lokuzimela ngokwamaqabane. Obergefell v. Hodges (2015] isigqibo somtshato ofanayo oxhomekeke kwinkqubo esezantsi efunekayo, abagxeki abaninzi abaphikisayo bayihlobo lokudityaniswa nge-fiat. Abaqululeki abanjengoJaji uThomas baye basikhaba esi sizathu, beqinisekisa ukuba uMxokelelwano-Mkhosi kaClausle akawayikhuseli amalungelo angakhuselwanga. Ungquzukiswano phakathi kwezi ntanda-bulumko luza kuchaza igalelo olulandelayo lwengxoxo, ngokukodwa njengoko kusenziwa yiNkuhlela yeNkuhlela.

Izicelo Ezisebenzisekayo Zabafundi, Abafundisi Namagcisa Asemthethweni

Ukuqonda uqhagamshelwano phakathi kwentanda-bulumko yomthetho nokudibanisa iinqobo akuyonto nje efundiswayo. Kubafundisi- ntsapho, kunika isiseko sokucacisa izigqibo zeNkundla Ephakamileyo. Kubafundi, kucacisa isizathu sokuba amanye amalungelo asebenzisa ngokufanayo kuwo onke amaphondo ngoxa amanye engawasebenzisi. Kwiingcali ezingokwasemthethweni, kuyanceda ukuxela kwangaphambili indlela amatyala azayo anokugqitywa ngayo. Njengoko iNkundla ijongene nemibuzo enzulu nge-athom (funa nokuxhuzula kwexesha leemfono), iSecondmendmentment ngaphandle kwekhaya, okanye amalungelo eebo bolwaphulo-mthetho, izibophelelo zentandabulumko ziya kufumanisa ukuba la malungelo amiselwe ngokwesizwe okanye ashiywe kwiinkundla zetyala. Ukuqala kwenqaku lokufunda ngokunzulu yi-COLD [FLD: 0] i-Corll Information Institutestion of the revolution ye-octive [Foct1]

Abafundisi bangasebenzisa iimbono zomahluko kwi [FLT][FLT] ````. kunye Timbs v. Indianana ukubonisa indlela abagwebi abafika ngayo iintanda-bulumko ezahlukeneyo kwiziphumo ezahlukeneyo. Abafundi bamele bakhuthazwe ukufunda ezona mbono zisebenzayo ukuze babone indlela ingqiqo esebenzayo ngayo. Uncedo lokuthelekisa iimbono zelixesha liyindawo yeNkulawulo ephezulu yeNkuvo epheleleyo [FLT], enikezela iingxelo ezipheleleyo.

Isiphelo: Intsingiselo Ehlala Ihleli Yentanda - bulumko Yezeejaji

Ukukhetha inxalenye esebenzayo yomthetho-siseko kuhlala kuyinto esebenzayo ngenxa yokuba ichaphazela uxinzeleleko olungundoqo phakathi kwamandla orhulumente kunye nenkululeko yombuso, phakathi kwentsingiselo esisigxina kunye nemigangatho ejikelezayo. Intanda-bulumko yejaji isebenza njengekhampasi ekhokelayo bulungisa ngapha nangapha kolu gqiza. Ukuba umbhali wezomthetho-siseko, umxhasi wezomthetho-siseko, okanye umxhasi wesivakalisi wezomthetho, isibonakude, esibona iSibona umgangatho weSimendo se-14 neSinyuko esithe ngqo esiba namalungelo azimeleyo. Njengoko imingeni emitsha ekhoyo iphuma kulwazi olungeyo olungoolwazi olungokwakhexelwayo olukwizincopho, olufanayo olufuna ukuba kuphicocwe ngoko kuthethwa yiNklulo yenkulungwane yama-21.