Indima YeNkundla Ephakamileyo Kulawulo - melo LwaseMerika

INkundla ePhakamileyo yase-U.S. ime njengomtoliki opheleleyo woMgaqo-siseko nomthetho wesizwe. Umsebenzi wayo ophambili kukuva izibheno ezivela kwiinkundla ezincinci kumatyala abandakanya imibuzo ebalulekileyo engokomGaqo-siseko, iimpikiswano phakathi kwamazwe, okanye iimpikiswano phakathi komthetho wesizwe norhulumente. Xa iNkundla iwisa umthetho, eso sigqibo siba sisisikhokelo kwinkundla esezantsi nganye yelo lizwe, ngokunempumelelo sibumba isakhiwo somthetho wonke amaMerika aphila kuso, asebenza, kunye nonxibelelwano.

Ngenxa yokuba iNkundla ePhakamileyo ingengombutho onyuliweyo, yenziwe ukuba ikhuselwe kwingcinezelo yezobupolitika, ivumela ukuba yenze izigqibo ezisekelwe kumGaqo-siseko nakwimigaqo yomthetho kunokuba ibe luvo oluqhelekileyo. Le nkululeko inika imithetho yayo ephawulekayo yokuhlala inegunya; iBhunga alinakuyitshintsha nje intsingiselo yomGaqo-siseko, kwaye ukubhukuqa umgqe-siseko kusoloko kufuna iNkundla yexesha elizayo okanye ukupheliswa komgaqo-siseko. Ngenxa yoko, izigqibo zeNkundla ingaphembelela iMerika kamashumi eminyaka okanye kwaneenkulungwane.

Indlela Inkundla Ephakamileyo Efikelela Ngayo Kwityala Elikhulu

Ukuqonda impembelelo yeNkundla kufuna ukuyiqonda ngokusisiseko inkqubo yayo. Nyaka ngamnye, iNkundla ifumana izibongozo ezimalunga nama-7 000 ukuya ku-8 000 zetyala. Izigwebo ziphinda zihlole ezingaphantsi kwekhulu kwezi, zikhetha ezo zibandakanya ingxabano enzulu phakathi kweenkundla eziphantsi, ziphakamisa umbano wemithetho ebhaliweyo, okanye zichaphazela ubomi bezigidi zamaMelika. “umthetho wesine” uthetha ukuba ubuncinane abagwebi abane bamele bavume ukuthatha ityala.

Xa ityala lamkelekile, omabini amacala afaka iingxoxo ezibhaliweyo, kwaye iNkundla iphulaphula umthetho. Emva kweengqungquthela zabucala, iimbono zomgwebo, ngokufuthi zisasaza iidrafti ezininzi ngaphambi kokuba kukhululwe isigqibo sokugqibela. Uluvo loninzi (ukuqiqa okuyalela ubuncinane iivoti ezintlanu) lungumthetho welizwe. Ukuqukuqela nokungavumelani kweembono, ngeli xesha lingabopheleleki, lungaphembelela iiNkundla zexesha elizayo kunye nemiqondiso apho umthetho unokuthi ukhokele khona.

Iindawo Ezintandathu Ezibalulekileyo Ezabangela Izigqibo Zenkundla Ephakamileyo Zibuphucule Ubomi Bamihla Le

1. Ukukhusela amalungelo nenkululeko

IBhili yamaLungelo iqinisekisa inkululeko esisiseko, kodwa umlinganiselo othe ngqo kunye nemida yaloo malungelo ichazwa yiNkundla Ephakamileyo. Umzekelo, [FLT][1] iWest Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette [1943]] [193] [iiiNkundla yeNkundla], yawisa umthetho wokuba abafundi besikolo sikawonke wonke bangayi kunyanzelekanga ukukhahlela iflegi okanye ukuphinda isiqinisekiso sika-Allegiance, ukuqinisekisa ukhuseleko loMmiselo wokuqala wenkululeko yokuthetha ngokukhululekile nenkululeko yonqulo. Elo sigqibo sisakhusela abafundi abangathathi nxaxheba kwimisetyenziso yonqulo okanye kwizo zentanda-ntanda-bulumko.

Kwixesha lamanani, ukukhuselwa kweNkundla ngoMphetho-mvakaliso wesi-5 kukhuselekile ekuphandeni okungekho ngqiqweni nasekuxhuzuleni kuneziphumo ezisebenzayo. [FLT]] Riley v. California (2014][FLT]], iNkundla yavumelana ukuba amapolisa afuna isiqinisekiso sokuphendla okuqulethwe yicell phone ebanjwa ngexesha lokubanjwa. Esi sigqibo sichaphazela ubumfihlo babo bonke abantu baseMelika abathwala i-cell phone, ichaphazela indlela yokufaka ngayo ugcino-lwazi lobuqu, uqhagamshelwano, iifoto, kunye nendawo embali.

Intetho Ezikolweni Nakunxibelelwano

Inkundla ilinganise intetho yabafundi. [FLT]][FOLT:1] .[Des Moines Independent Community School District [1969]], iNkundla ivakalise ngokudumileyo ukuba abafundi “abawasebenzisi amalungelo abo omgaqo-siseko wenkululeko yokuthetha okanye amazwi kwisango lendlu yesikolo. Oku kusekukhusela ukuvukelwa kwabafundi, kodwa kamva, njenge [FLT]]. [[FLT]] [FFLT:]] [2006] [2006] [iiiiiiindlela yokhuseleko] [5] [indlela yoncedo lwemfundo oluphangaleleyolwazi oluqhelekileyo] [5] [iiiindlela yoncedo lwemfundo] i-Greyiviti ye-Fodkst] [3]

2. Ukuchaza ukulingana namalungelo oluntu

Mhlawumbi akukho didi lwezigqibo zeNkundla Ephakamileyo olutshintshe kakhulu ubomi bemihla ngemihla kunobo bujongene nokulingana phantsi komthetho. Brown v. Ibhodi yemfundo[ (1954]) iphelile irentintigrand remontmentspanspaintstionsssspaints ezikolweni zikawonke wonke, isigqibo esaguqula imfundo yaseMelika, indlu, nomsebenzi. Ngelixesha isithembiso esipheleleyo se [[FLT:] Brown isaqondwa, ukubamba kwayo “ezilinganayo kodwa ezikokubanjweyo" azinandawo zemfundo kawonke.

Kummandla womtshato, Obergefell v. Hodges (2015] uqinisekisa izibini ezikwanye ezingokwasemgangathweni ilungelo lokutshata kwilizwe lonke. Eso sigqibo sachaphazela izigidi zentsapho zaseMerika, iindleko zerhafu, amalungelo efa, ukwamkelwa ngokwentlalo. Phambi [[FLT: 4,]] Obergefell, umtshato we-xnex ubesemthethweni kwimimandla embalwa kuphela, yenza umsebenzi wesivumelwano wamalungelo. Ukususela ngoko, izibini ezitshatileyo zineexcoans zifumana iinzuzo ezifanayo, ukufuduka, ukufuduka, ukuhambelana kwemitshato ye-Aredia.

Isenzo Sokuqinisekisa Namalungelo

Kutshanje, izigqibo zeNkundla kuMntla Carolina Izigqibo ze Fair Adgistrations v. Harvard kunye ne [[FLT]] umanyano lwasemntla Caroline[ [2023] [[FLT:] [202]] [2002] [iiiiiiiindawo ephantsi yohlanga ekuvulweni kweenkqubo zemfundo ephezulu. [FT] ilawula i-yunivesithi eqeqeqeshiweyo kulo lonke ilizwe ukuphinda imigaqo yayo, echaphazela indlela amawaka abafundi asebenza ngayo ekholejini unyaka ngamnye. Okwangoku, amatyala afana [FLD] .[FT] V [FT8] [12] [20] [iK], isitshixo semithelela imiyalelo esitsha, i-offdictiond transtid transformation, i-ographywoographyc, i

3. Ukuchaphazela imfundo evela kwiKlasi yeNkcubeko

Ngaphezu kokwahlukaniswa nokuthetha, iNkundla isoloko igqiba ngamatyala achaphazela ubomi basesikolweni. Ukwalela kwesikolo ukuthandaza okuqulethweyo kwasekwa ku Engel v. Vitale [ (62])[[FLT:], ukuvalela imithandazo eqanjwe ngokusemthethweni kwizikolo zikawonke-wonke-wonke. Izigqibo, ezifana [[[FLT:][FLT]][FLT]].[FLT]] Leev.[FLT:][FLT]] [2] [FLT] [7] [5] [iiiiinqanyulo] [iiiiiiindlela yokwabela izicelo zemfundo yoluntu] kunye [iinqanyulo] kunye nezikolo ezithelelwayo zemfundo zemfundo yoluntu].[Flt], i-34]

Umthetho wemfundo ekhethekileyo wachaphazeleka ngendlela ephawulekayo Board of Education v. Rowley (19982], ochaza umgangatho we-“ukhululekileyo imfundo kawonke-wonke” phantsi koMthetho we-Entelligement Education Act (IDA). Nangona iNkundla imisele isiseko esisezantsi esithelekisayo, imithetho elandelayo enjenge [FLT][FLT]] [FLT]] [FLT] F. v. Countrity School School [2017] [2017] umgangatho ofunekayo ukunikezela imfundo ekhawulezelelwa yilethwa kukwenza inkqubela elungele ukwenziwa ngabantwana kwiinkqubo zemfundo ezithile zezemfundo.).

4. Ukusetyenziswa kweSebe

Izigqibo zeNkundla ePhakamileyo zibumba imivuzo encinane, imithetho eyongezelelweyo, ukhuseleko lwasemsebenzini, namalungelo omanyano. [FLT]FFUDALF of Independent Business v. Sebelius (202], iNkundla yaxhasa ummiselo womntu ngamnye we-Afford Care Act njengerhaful, igcina impilo ekhutshwayo yezigidi zabasebenzi. Noko ke, iNkundla yalinganisela ulwando lomthetho we-Médicaid, ichaphazela indlela abasebenzi abaninzi abangenayo abangene ngayo ekunikezelweni.

Kummandla wocalucalulo lwamalungelo omsebenzi, [FLT] Bostock v. Clayton County [2020] isiSihlomelo VII se-Populan Rights Act ukukhusela abasebenzi ekucalucalulweni ngokusekelwe kwimbonakalo yesondo okanye kwimeko ye-transformer. Isigqibo esiphawulayo sayiguqula ngoko nangoko indlela abaqeshi abasingatha ngayo izikhalazo, iinzuzo, kunye nemigaqo yemisebenzi yeLGBTQ+ abasebenzi, echaphazela abantu abaqikelelwa kwizigidi eziyi15.

Umthetho Wemisebenzi Nemveliso

INkundla ikwabhekise kumandla amasebe karhulumente. [FLT][FLT Virginia v. EPA [202] , iNkundla ithintele amandla okulawula ukukhutshwa kwegesi ekhupha umoya emoyeni ngaphantsi koMthetho we-Eleatmor, isigqibo esichaphazelekayo kubaphathi kumandla e-2002. Okwangoku, [FLT]] Janus v. AFSC [2017] [2017])] salawula oko kukhutshwa kombuzo lwe-omatilo-onke abasebenzi.[FLT]

5. Ukusetyenziswa kwempilo, ukubuyiselwa nokuzidityanisa

Zimbalwa iindawo zobomi bemihla ngemihla ezidityaniswe ngokusondeleyo nezigqibo zeNkundla ePhakamileyo njengezonyango kunye nenkululeko yomzimba. Dobts v. Jackson Women’s Health Organization [202] [202] [[FLT]] ukulawulwa [[[FLT]]] ukulawulwa [[[FLT]]] i-Roev. Wade [[ kunye [[FLT] no-Parents] v. Casey, ibuyisela umbuzo womgaqo wokuqhola kumazwe. Esombululo-mali encinci, ukunyanzela amabhinqa ukuya kunyakathotho lweempukunyaka enyaka enyaka enyaka, ukutshintsha amakhulu eenze ii-eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeezo protis zoshishito zoko zorhwebo zezo zoko.

Imfundiso yasese yeNkundla ikwanabela kugcino-lwazi lwempilo nolwazi lwamanani. [[FLT]] Ikharplate v. United States (2018)[FLT]], iNkundla yagqiba ukuba urhulumente ufune isiqinisekiso sokufumana iirekhodi ze-cell zembali kwindawo ekuthwaleni iziphathi ze-metrogram. Le sigqibo sikhusela imfihlelo yomatshini yomsebenzisi ngamnye we-cell, silinganisela indlela umthetho onokuthi ulandelele ngayo imibutho yomntu ngaphandle kolawulo lomthetho. Ibonisa ukuqalisela uxanduva olukhulayo lokuba ugcino-lwazi lwezintlukelo lufanelwe lukhuselwe ngamandla lwesine.

Iimfuno zeNtovu Nempilo kaRhulumente

Ngexesha lesifo se-COVID Ú19, iNkundla yavala isigunyaziso solawulo lwe-Biden sokugoma i-Bhenden, sokuba abaqeshi abakhulu bafumane inkxaso yezonyango . Inani lesizwe le-Intependent Business v. OSTA[ [202] [202]] , ngexa ivumela ugunya olufanayo lweziko lwezonyango olufumana imali yezwe ku [FLT]] BNV. Missouris[[FLT:] [202]] [FLT] [25:7]]. Le mimiselo yahlukeneyo ephembelela imigaqo yempilo yasekuhlaleni yezigidi zabasebenzi nendlela yokuqhuba iimbutholo zeNkulungisa inkundla zeNkupho ngexesha likawonke wonke woluntu ngexesha loluntu.[FLT]

6. Ukuqiqa Indlela Urhulumente Asebenza Ngayo noko Anokukwenza

INkundla ePhakamileyo ingumqukumbeli opheleleyo wokwahlula amagunya phakathi kweBhunga, umongameli, kunye namatyala. Marbury v. Madison (1883] [i-FLT] imisele uhlolo lwezomthetho ngokwalo, inika iNkundla amandla okuwisa izenzo zeBhunga. Lo mgaqo omnye usekelwe kwisigqibo ngasinye esilonakalisa umthetho karhulumente.

Imizekelo yakutshanje iquka Indawo yokhuseleko lwasekhaya ku-'. IRegents' yeYunivesithi yaseKhalifoniya' [20] , eyavala imigudu yolawulo lweTrump ulwelo lokuphelisa uKhuselo lobuntwana (DACA) inkqubo. Ukulawula okulondolozweyo kokhuseleko lwabaphambukeli abamalunga nama-70 000, kubavumela ukuba baqhubeke besebenza, befunda, kwaye bephila ngaphandle koloyiko lokugxothwa. Kwaqinisekisa imidaba yezenzo zolawulo.

Amatyala omanyano amisela ulungelelwano phakathi kwegunya lesizwe nelombuso. [FLT]]. [FURphy v. NCA (2018), iNkundla yabetha phantsi iProfessional kunye ne Amperor Sports Provice Active Act (PASPA), ivula umnyango wamazwe ukubhalisa ngokusemthethweni imidlalo ebhejelwayo. Ukususela ngoko, ngaphezu kwamashumi amathathu eethanga amanqaku agqithisekileyo anikeze imithetho evumela ukubheja imidlalo, ivelisa amawaka ezigidi zemali kwaye iguqula indlela abantu baseMerika abandakanyeke ngayo kwimidlalo yekholeji.

Ukungaguquguquki Kwenkundla Ephakamileyo

Ngenxa yokuba izigqibo zeNkundla ePhakamileyo kunzima ukuziguqula, benza ulungiso oluhlala luhleli oludala indlela yokuziphatha kwizizukulwana. Umgaqo we [FLT]]status decisis `ingcamango yokuba iinkundla zifanele zilandele umzekelo, zisenza uzinzo olungapheliyo kodwa alwenzi lungabi nakwenzeka. Xa iNkundla ibhukuqa idede imodelity, njengoko yenzayo [[FLT: 4.] [[FLT]] kunye [FLT: BB] ne[FLT] Brow], iziphumo zoluntu nezomthetho zininzi.

Uzinzo lungamandla kunye nobuthathaka: luqinisekisa ukuba amalungelo ahlale engaguquki ngexesha elithile, kodwa lukwathetha ukuba imithetho emidala engasahambelani namaxabiso kawonke-wonke (njenge [[FLT: 0]] Planey v. Ferguson, exhasa ukuhlahlela) iqhubekeke de iNkundla yexesha elizayo iwagatye. Ngoko ke uwonke unomdla onamandla wokuqonda uqalo lweNkundla kunye nolwalathiso lwayo lweNkubumba.

Iingqinipho Nezingqinelano: Imida Yokwenene YeNkundla — Ihlabathi Elineenkwenkwezi Ezingama - 76

Ngawo onke amandla ayo, iNkundla ePhakamileyo ayinakunyanzelisa izigqibo zayo. Ixhomekeke kwisebe eliphetheyo ukuzalisekisa izigqibo kunye nokuvuma kukawonke-wonke ukuthobela. Xa uMongameli Andrew Jackson etyholwa ngokuchasa iNkundla [[FLT: 0]] ku-Worcester v. Georgia [1832], uthe, “uJohn Marshall wenze isigqibo sakhe; ngoku mvumele anyanzele." Kutshanje, amazwe aye akhabange isahlulelo kwideseko, amalungelo okuvota, kunye nokuqhomfa, maxa wambi iminyaka.

IKhomishini iyakwazi ukuphendula kwizigqibo zeNkundla ngokubeka imithetho yephondo, lo gama nje ukulungisa kungawuchaphazeli umGaqo-siseko. Umzekelo, emva kokuba iNkundla ibethe ukusetyenziswa kocalulo lwexesha Kwisenzo somsebenzi kurhulumente wabasebenzi ku [[FLT: 0].] KM]KN] v. Ibhodi yeRegents [2] [2] [2], iBhunga lisenokuwudlulisa umthetho omtsha osebenzisa amandla ayo okusebenzisa ukukhusela okufana nawo. Ngoko ke, iNkuNkundla inamandla kodwa ayinamandla kodwa ayinamandla; izigqibo zayo zibuliswa ngamasebe ezobupolitika kunye nolwamvo.

Imikhwa Yangoku Nempembelelo Yexesha Elizayo

Inkundla yangoku, equka uninzi lwabagwebi abathathi-nxaxheba, ibonise ukuvuma ukuphinda uphinde ulandele imizekelo emide. Ityala kumandla ombutho karhulumente (“imfundiso yemipu”), amalungelo empumlo, kunye nenkululeko yonqulo ziphinda ziwatshintshe amatyala asemthethweni. [[FLT][1] [iiSivumelwano se-New York State Rifle & Pistol Association v. Bruen [202] [25] Isigqibo sesibini sokuHlaziywa kolungiso ngokufuna amalungelo okuthethelela imiqathango yemilo ngokuthethelela imiqathango engokwembali. Oko kunyanzele ngokomthetho.

Kwiminyaka ezayo, iNkundla iyakugqiba amatyala abandakanya ubukrelekrele obungeyoyamvelo, ubungcathu bezentlalo-ntle, ukutshintsha kwemozulu, namalungelo abantu emhlabeni wonke. Inye kwezi ndawo iza kuba neziphumo ezikhawulezileyo zendlela amaMelika anxibelelana ngayo, asebenze ngayo, kwaye abe nenxaxheba kwidemokhrasi. Ukutolikwa kweNkundla yoMmiselo wokuqala kwimeko yoluntu kumaqonga enkcubeko enkqenkqeza phambili kuya kugqiba enoba iinkampani zobugcisa zinokukwazi ukuvelisa iintetho ezithile ezifanelekileyo okanye enoba amazwe anokubanyanzela ukuba bathethe. Izigqibo ezithile zomgaqo-mthetho obume uya kuchaphazela intluphetho yamandla, isantya sokubuyiselwa komphambili, kunye nempilo yoluntu olukufuphi nezoshishino.

Isizathu Sokuba Abemi Bafanele Banikele Ingqalelo

INkundla Ephakamileyo isoloko ichazwa njengesebe “eliyingozi ngokwempuma” ngenxa yokuba ayinaso isipaji okanye ikrele. Kodwa izigqibo zayo zifikelela kwikona nganye yobomi baseMelika .Ntomba iphinda iphinde iSifungo soMngxuma woMgaqo-siseko de kube kanye ngexesha umqeshwa ehlola umyalezo wesiqendu emva kweeyure ezininzi. Ukuqonda umsebenzi weNkundla kuvumela abemi ukuba babe nentsingiselo engakumbi kwiingxoxo zomgaqo-siseko, bacinge indlela imithetho emitsha eza kuvavanywa ngayo, kwaye baqonde isizathu sokuba ukutyunjwa kwetyala elinye lobulungisa kuguqule umgaqo welizwe kamashumi eminyaka.

Imithombo enjenga [[FLT: 0] Oyez. org, Iqumrhu lolwazi lomthetho , kunye SCOUSBlog [ inikeza ukufikeleleka, ukunyuswa kolwazi kwimeko ezithenjiweyo nakumthetho wakutshanje. Ngokulandela izibuko leNkundla nokufunda iimbono zayo ````````'''' SCUSSUSTUS ’] [[[FLTLTL:5]] inikeza ulwazi olufikelelekayo, ukunyukayo, ukunyuka kwe-[25] ulwazi lwengxelo yexesha elizayo.