Indlela Oorhulumente Abayisebenzisa Ngayo IsiHlomelo Seshumi Eline Ukuze Bakhusele Abemi

IsiHlanziso seshumi elinesine, esavunywa ngo-1868, sesinye sezona ziphendulo ziphambili zoMgaqo-siseko waseUnited States. Sayilwa kuqala ukukhusela amalungelo abantu ababengamakhoboka emva kweMfazwe yamakhaya, kodwa ulwimi lwaso olubanzi luye lwayivumela ukuba ibe sisiseko sokhuseleko olungenakulinganiswa lwenkululeko yomntu ngamnye nokulingana. Oorhulumente abakwindawo yorhulumente, urhulumente, kunye nemigangatho yasekuhlaleni baxhomekeke ekukhuselweni kokukhusela abemi bobabini nxamnye nesenzo somthetho esingumthetho osisigxina. Eli nqaku lihlolisisa iinjongo ezingundoqo zoMgantlulo we-Dlundlo-Dintshiso-Dyenulo, indlela abaye basebenzisa ngayo ukukhusela amalungelo abantu, inkqubo efanelekileyo, kunye nenkululeko esisiseko.

Ukuqalisa KoMthetho We - 14 Wokwenziwa Kwazo

Ixesha lasemva kwemfazwe lafuna ukuphinda kuvuselelwe ngomgaqo-siseko. Uhlaziyo lweshumi elinesithathu lwaphelisa ubukhoboka, kodwa ngoko nangoko amatyala aseMazantsi amisela “Imithetho Emnyama” eyayimisela ngokungqongqo inkululeko yama-Afrika. UMthetho wokuHlayishela Ishumi elinesine wezomthetho wabhalelwa ukuphendula okungekho sikweni ngokuqinisekisa ukuba ngummi nokuma okulinganayo okusemthethweni. Iqulethe amalungiselelo amaninzi abalulekileyo: iSigqeba sobuGcisa u-Clausle, amaLungelo okanye amaImmunion Classia, i-Active Proces Classe, kunye ne-Actal Protection Classionace. Ekuhambeni kwexesha, la malungiselelo aye anika oorhulumente izixhobo zokukhusela abemi bahlala kucanaye ekukhetheni nakungalungiswano.

Ukukhusela u-Claus

IThe Unime Protection Claus ithi: “Akukho Rhulumente... eya kumkhanyela nabani na okwigunya layo ukhuseleko olulinganayo lwemithetho.” Eli binzana belilelo eliphambili lomGaqo-siseko elichasene nemithetho kunye nezenzo zolwaphulo-mthetho. Iirhulumente ``oorhulumente kunye neenkundla zikarhulumente'') zisebenzisa ukubetha imimiselo ejongene nohlanga, ubufana, ubuzwe, okanye ezinye izigwebo ezirhanelwayo.

Ukusetyenziswa Kwembali: Ukuphelisa Ucalucalulo

Ukusetyenziswa kweQuence Claus ekwaziwayo kwe- Brown v. Ibhodi yemfundo (1954), apho iNkundla ePhakamileyo yayisithi ucalulo lobuhlanga kwizikolo zikawonke wonke lwalungalingani ngokwemvelo. Kumashumi eminyaka alandelayo, iinkundla zasebenzisa uluvo olufanayo ekupheliseni indawo yokuhlala, ekuthutheni, kwizindlu, kwizindlu, kwiendawo zokuhlala zikawonke wonke, nasemsebenzi. Ingxelo ayikhuseli nje kuphela kwikhethe elizenzekelayo; iinkundla zanamhlanje zikwayisebenzisela ukubukeza iziphumo ezibangela ukungalingani kwiqela elikhuselweyo, nangona zisebenzisa amaqondo ahlukeneyo okuhlola.

Ukulingana kwendoda nenkosikazi

UKhuselo olulinganayo lukaClaus luye lwagxininisa ekuqhubekekeni kwe-asent. Reed v. Reed kunye Craig v. UBonen, iNkundla ePhakamileyo imisele ukuba imithetho ebalaselelwa ngokobudoda ifanele isebenze kumsebenzi we-“ethematikathili" kwaye idibane kakhulu naloo njongo. Le ibizwa ngokuba“kuhlola kwe-intermedia." imigangatho esekelwe kwi-discriagn, njengaloo ndawo ibeka amalungelo empahla, amathuba okusebenza, nokufikelela kwinkonzo yomkhosi. Urhulumente uyaqhubeka uxhomekeke ekukhuseleni ukukhuselwa ngokulingana, ukukhuselwa kwe-'i-'impatho-yo.

Ukubonelela ngamalungelo nokhuthuzo

UKhuselo olulinganayo lukaClaus lukwalawula amalungelo okuvota kunye nomelo lwezopolitiko. Reynolds v. Sims (1964), iNkundla ePhakamileyo yagqiba ukuba imimandla yezomthetho-mthetho imele ilingana phantse kubemi. “inye indoda, ivoti enye. umgaqo. Oku kuqinisekise ukuba i-rekhodi yasemaphandleni ibeke iliso elifanelekileyo kwaye inqanda ukufika. Kutshanje, i-Srigorive iye yasetyenziselwa ukucel ’ umngeni we-gerrymantering, imithetho ye-othorist, neminye imiqathango echaphazela ngokungenayo i-volunts. [3] I-Intenegastivetion: [F]

Ilindelekile Claus

I-System Claus ivakalisa ukuba akukho zwe liya “kukhupha namnye umntu wobomi, wenkululeko, okanye wempahla, ngaphandle kwenkqubo efanelekileyo yomthetho.” Esi siqinisekiso sinemilinganiselo emibini eyahlukileyo: inkqubo efunekayo kunye nenkqubo efunekayo. Zombini ezi zizixhobo ezibalulekileyo zokukhusela abemi kwisenzo soburhulumente esingurhulumente.

Inkqubo eQhelekileyo

Inkqubo efunekayo ifuna ukuba ngaphambi kokuba urhulumente asuse ubomi bomntu, inkululeko, okanye impahla, inikeze iinkqubo zobulungisa. Oku kuquka isaziso esaneleyo sezityholo, ithuba lokuviwa, isigqibo sokungakhethi buso, nelungelo lokunika ubungqina. Iinkundla zixhomekeke kwezi mfuneko ukuqinisekisa ukuba izenzo zazo zokuziphumeza iinzuzo zentlalo-ntle, ukulahla ilayisensi yomsebenzi, okanye ukukhupha iprojekthi engeyo-i-centen-partzz-acs. Iinkundla ziye zavelisa uvavanyo olulungeleleneyo olulinganisa inzala yabucala exhotyiselwa, umngcipheko wokungalungiswa, nenzala karhulumente. Umzekelo, [[FLT:] u-Maws. v [FLD]

Inkqubo elindelekileyo

Inkqubo esisiseko esisiseko ikhusela amalungelo asisiseko angadweliswanga ngokucacileyo kumGaqo-siseko, kwanaxa urhulumente esebenzisa iinkqubo ezifanelekileyo. INkundla Ephakamileyo iye yakhetha inkululeko efana nelungelo lokutshata, ilungelo lokuba nabantwana, ilungelo lokuzimela, nelungelo lokungalufuni unyango lonyango olukhuselekileyo phantsi kwale mfundiso. Iimeko zelizwe ezifana Grisold v.Connecticut[[FL:1]] [1955] [ilungelo lokutshata), [[FLT:] [FLT]] i-v.[FLT] [2] Roeev.[FLT] [3] [73] [7] [7] [7])) [iimeko oluthenjiweyo, [iiiiiiiimeko oluthe-mfak'e]. [iiiiiijijinga] iyaqhubeka isebenza kwicala elithenjiweyo elingeyokuwokunga, i-ogxonsole.[FLT]

Ukukhusela Inkululeko Yezoqoqosho

Nangona iNkundla ePhakamileyo ishiye inkqubo encinci yezoqoqosho efunekayo yexesha Lochner (eye yagawula imivuzo neeyure zemali), oorhulumente bale mihla basasebenzisa inkqubo efunekayo ukukhusela imimiselo yezoqoqosho ezimeleyo. Iinkundla zisebenzisa uvavanyo olusengqiqweni, olufuna kuphela ukuba umthetho uvumelane nenjongo esemthethweni karhulumente. Oku kuye kwavumela ulawulo ukulawula imisebenzi yeshishini, impahla, kunye nezivumelwano ezide zingekhona ngqiqweqwele-mza okanye intlawulo. I-eprojekthi ye-Claus inika umgangatho ophantsi apho inkululeko yezoqoqosho ingenakuwa ngaphandle kwesizathu esinyanzela.

Imfundiso Yomahluko

Imfundiso eHlanganyekileyo ngumgaqo osemthethweni wokuba ukukhusela kweBhili yamaLungelo kusebenza kumazwe ngeSicwangciso soLawulo seshumi elinesine. Ekuqaleni, iBhili yamaLungelo yabeka imiqathango kurhulumente wesizwe kuphela. INkundla ePhakamileyo yaqalisa “ukuqinisekisa” iziqinisekiso ezingqalileyo ekuqaleni kwenkulungwane yama-20, kwaye namhlanje phantse onke amalungiselelo otshintsho lokuqala olusibhozo aye asetyenziswa kurhulumente nakoorhulumente basekuhlaleni.

Amalungelo Asetyenziswa Ixesha Elide

Amalungelo abalulekileyo aqukisiweyo aquka:

  • Uhlaziyo lokuqala lwenkululeko: ukuthetha, ukucofa, unqulo, indibano, isicelo (ukuqala [nge Gitlow v. New York, 1925)).
  • [[UMTL: 0] UHlaliso lweNkqutyana lukhusela ekuphengululweni okungaqikeleliyo nokuxhuzula (] Mapp v. Ohio, 1961]).
  • [[NTL:0] Ukhuseleko lweNkqutyana yeSindululo ekuzifakeleni ngokwakho ( Malloy v. Hogan, 1964]) kunye nengozi ephindwe kabini ([[FLT:]Benton v. Maryland, 1969).
  • [[NTL:0] IsiHlalisi-mda se-Implijimenti ekunene kwisiluleko ( Gideon v. Wainwright[, 1963], ungquzulwano lwamangqina, ukuvavanywa okukhawulezileyo, kunye nokuvavanywa kwetyala labachopheli-tyala.
  • [[UMTL: 0] Ukhuseleko loMphetho-mda osisiHlomelo kwisohlwayo esinenkohlakalo nesingaqhelekanga ([[FTL:2]] Robinson v. California, 1962) kunye nebheyile egqithisileyo.

Ukuququzelela kuqinisekisa ukuba oorhulumente abanako ukuwaphula amalungelo asekuhlaleni. Abameli bomthetho, iibhodi zesikolo, kunye neendlu zowiso-mthetho zikarhulumente bonke basebenza phantsi kwemiqathango efanayo norhulumente wezwe. Oku kudibanisa kukhusela abemi kwimiqathango eqeshwayo engokwasemthethweni kwaye kungundoqo kwinkululeko yabemi yale mihla. Ukufunda okungakumbi ngokuqukwa kwe-Cornell Legal Information Institute[

Amalungelo angadityaniswanga

Zimbalwa izibonelelo zamalungelo angekangeniselwa, ezifana neSithathu soHlaziyo (iSihlalo-mthetho samajoni) kunye neMfuno-yoMgaqo-nkqubo wesihlanu wokumangalelwa kwabachopheli-tyala abaphezulu. UMthetho Wesibini Wolwandiso lokugcina nokuphatha iingalo wafakwa kwi-' McDonald v. Chicago[ (2010), ukulungisa impikiswano ende ende. Inkundla nayo iye yayeka ukubandakanya amalungu athile etyala leJaji yeNqila lokuchola-mthetho weSizwe. Kodwa ke, i-Incoration Doctive Doctive

Iingxaki Ezingokwasemthethweni Nezinto Eziphawula Ilizwe

ISichibiyelo seshumi elinesine siye sabangela ukuba iNkundla ePhakamileyo ibekwe ityala ngaphezu kwalo naliphi na elinye ilungiselelo lomgaqo-siseko. Amatyala ophawu achaza imida yamandla karhulumente namalungelo omntu ngamnye. Ngapha koko ziinkalo ezingundoqo apho ukuhlaziywa komthetho kuvavanyiwe kwaye kucocwe khona.

Umgangatho Wobuhlanga Nenyathelo Elizinzisayo

Ku IeRegents zeYunivesithi yaseKhalifoniya v. Bakke [1988] kunye neemeko ezilandelayo ezifana iGraiter v. Bollinger[ [2003], iNkundla yabambelela kwimigaqo-nkqubo yohlanga ephangaleleyo kwimfundo ephezulu ingasinda kuhlolo olulinganayo ukuba zilungiselelwe ukuphumelela intelekelelo oluncinci ukuze zifumane inzala enyanzelekileyo. Oku kubonise intelekelelo yoorhulumente abanokusoloko besamkela. izimvo ze- Fair Adgictives vv.[[FLD5] [20])

Ukuncoma Amalungelo Nokunganeliseki

ISindululo soMphetho weshumi elinesine siquka isohlwayo sikarhulumente okhanyela ukuvota: ukuncitshiswa komelo kwiBhunga. Elo lungiselelo alizange linyanzeliswe, kodwa iCandelo lesi-2 lichaziwe kwiingxoxo zokudilika kwefelon. Ricardson v. Ramirez [1979]), iNkundla ePhakamileyo yayalela ukuba ukudiliza kwe-franchise, kodwa iCandelo lesi-22 lichaziwe kwiingxoxo zokungaphithi-mvisi i-e, njengokuba ulwimi lwe-1459 lubonakala luvumela oko. Amanye amaphondo aye avumela utshintsho lwemithetho yawo, ngoxa amanye aqhubeka ukulahla amanani amakhulu abemi, ngoku ngoku okuchaphazela okungalinganiyo. Urhulumente uquququluphala uyakwazi ukudibana nale migaqo eenza imigaqo eekho kule miqobo.

Umtshato-styhene namalungelo entsapho

[[Nkundla:0] iqiqa ukuba inkululeko ekhuselwe yinkqubo efunekayo iquka ilungelo lokutshata, kwaye ukukhanyelwa kwalo lungelo kwizibini ezikwindawo enye kwaphulwa ukhuseleko. Oo rhulumente kuwo onke amanqanaba kwafuneka ukuba banikezele imvume yomtshato omnye kwizibini ezitshatileyo kunye nokuqaphela imitshato yazo kwezinye izivumelwano. Oku kubonisa ukuba izivumelwano ezimbini zinokusebenza njani ukuze zikhusele amalungelo angundoqo.

Abafuduki Nabemi Abangaxelelwanga

ISisazeko uClaus e-14th Amendment ivakalisa ukuba bonke abantu abazelwe okanye abamiselwe ngokwemvelo e-United States kunye nolawulo lwayo bangabami. Eli binzana lisekelwe kubumi basekhaya, umgaqo oye waqatshelwa kodwa waxhaswa ziinkundla. Plyler v. Doe (1992), iNkundla yawisa umthetho waseTexas engafuniyo ukuba abantwana bafumane imfundo yamahala, ibambe ukuba uKhuselo olulinganayo luka-Claus lukhusele bonke abantu, hayi nje abemi. Urhulumente norhulumente worhulumente kufuneka ngoku uqinisekise ukuba imithetho yabo ingacaluli nxamnye nabangengo-cime-. [FLT.2] i-PGOLT] eqhubekayo ngobugrandye-SCUS

Izicelo zaNgoku kunye neMgaqo kwiXesha elizayo

UMthetho weSigqibo weshumi elinesine uyaqhubeka usisisixhobo esiphilayo sokukhusela abemi. Iinkundla zicelwa ngokwandayo ukuba zisebenzise imigaqo yazo kubugcisa obutsha, kumalungelo okuzala, nakubuchule obungebobobobobo. Umzekelo, ukusetyenziswa kwemithetho elawula ukugwetywa kwezaphuli-mthetho kunye nokujongwa kwamapolisa aqikelelayo kunyusa inkxalabo efanayo ukuba ngabahlaseli abancinane kakhulu. Iirhulumente kumgangatho karhulumente ziphumeza imithetho yokulawula obu bugcisa, kwaye iinkundla ziya kubavavanya ukungqinelana nokuvunywa kweMpanziswano ye-145.

Imfihlo yogcino-lwazi kunye nokwanda

ICardenter v. United States (2088), iNkundla ePhakamileyo yathi urhulumente ufumana iingxelo zendawo yeselfowuni kufuneka isiqinisekiso phantsi koMphetho-Mda-mvakaliso wesine, kodwa iNkundla ikwabonisa ukuba inkqubo efanelekileyo efunekayo ingakhusela ukulindela izinto zobuqu ezisengqiqweni. Amazwe azama umthetho wemfihlo, kodwa uHlaziselo lweshumi elinesine lunika umgangatho osisiseko. Njengoko ubugcisa bokuhlola busiya kwanda, abemi baxhomekeke kwinkqubo efanelekileyo yokuvavanya ukuqokelelwa kogcino-lwazi oluninzi.

Ummiselo wamalungelo omntu oPost-[[FLT: 0]

Isigqibo seNkundla Ephakamileyo siphethe ukuba uLawulo lweNtlalo-Mpahla-siseko we-Dobs v. Jackson’s Health Organization [202]) urhoxisile [[FLT:] Roe v. Wade[, ibambe ukuba uLawulo lweMpande-Mpanzi lweshumi elinesine alukhuseli lungelo lokuqhomfa. Noko ke, ukukhuselwa kusenelo kukhusela ezinye iinkululeko zokuzala, njengasekunene kokukhutshwa kokukhutshwa kwemiliselwa (ukukhuselwa [[FLT: 4)] [FLT]]] ], yaye [FLT] [FLD] [evenct] ngokuchasayo.[Flth .FD [FLD7]]])

Ukungalingani Kwezoqoqosho Namalungelo Okanye Umlinganiselo KaClaus

Amalungelo okanye amaGawulayo ka-Imituni Claus weSigqibo seshumi elinesine, esathiwe shwaka yiSlaughter- House Cases (1873), iye yabona ukuphinda i-ethena okuncinane. Abanye abaphengululi nabagwebi basemthethweni baphikisa ngelithi kufuneka ikhusele amalungelo asisiseko angagutyungelwanga yi-Unit Procestion Claus, njengamalungelo okuhamba kunye nelungelo lokubandakanyeka kwimisebenzi eqhelekileyo. Oorhulumente bangasebenzisa eli binzana ukuqinisekisa ukuba imithetho ayiwanyanzeli ngokungqongqo amathuba ezoqoqosho, nangona iNkuNkundla Ephakamileyo iye yathandabuza ukuwavuselela ngokuphangaleleyo. [[FL:0] [Exploreestions okanye ii-Immuniclausssss kwi-ABA[FLD1]

Isiphelo

UMthetho-siseko we-14 uhlala ungumqobo wokukhusela abemi kurhulumente abaphathwe kakubi nabacalucalulo. Ukusuka kwiSikhuseli esilinganayo sikaClaus ukuya kwi-Adry Processom Claus ne-Incorporation Doctrine, oorhulumente balo lonke umgangatho baxhomekeke kula malungiselelo ukunyanzelisa okusesikweni, ukulingana, nokuthembeka kwemithetho. Amatyala okuphawula ukufika kolawulo lokhuseleko andise umgangatho wokufikelela korhulumente, kodwa umbhalo ngokwawo awutshintshanga ukususela ngowe-1868. Isizukulwana ngasinye kufuneka sichaze size sisebenzise imigaqo yaso kwiingxaki ezintsha, siqinisekisa ukuba isithembiso senkululeko nenkuselo elinganayo siyaqhubeka. Njengoko ibutho labantu liqhubeka lineenguquko, ukuhlazinziwa komthetho owenziwe ngabahlazinziweyo abahlaziweyo abafuna okusesikweni kwaye benoxandulela oorhulumente.

Iphetshana le- Author: Eli nqaku lenzelwe iinjongo zolwazi kuphela yaye aliyilanga icebiso lomthetho. Kwimibuzo ethile engokwasemthethweni, jonga igqwetha eligunyazisiweyo.