Isiseko somGaqo-siseko samasebe amathathu

Ukwahlulwa kwamagunya litye lokulawula laseMerika, elenzelwe ukukhusela nayiphi na into ekhoyo ekulawuleni urhulumente. Kurhulumente, kurhulumente, kumazwe, nakumgangatho wasekuhlaleni, esi sakhiwo siqinisekisa ukuba ukwenza umthetho, ukunyanzelisa, kunye nokutolika kuhlala kusekwe ngokwahlukileyo. Umgaqo ubonakalisa ingcambu zawo kuMontesquieus Ù Umoya woMthetho [, othi umele ukuba inkululeko igcinwe kakuhle xa i-grougn, umphathi, kunye nemisebenzi yogwebo igcinwa yahlulwa. UJames Mas Viegodson wanwe koku [FLD: 2] uNkanga].[4], [5FLT], [3], ngokuchasene nokuxinzelelwa kooxa lwamandla.Ntsuluko lorhulumente lwamazwe aseMelika, urhulumente waseUnited States kumazwe asuka kwibhulo-U.[4] kunye nolwahlu lolwaniso lolwaniso.[5]

Ukuqonda indlela oorhulumente bengingqi, borhulumente, borhulumente, kunye noorhulumente besizwe abathathu, kufuneka kuqala bathabathe iimbopheleleko ezingundoqo ezibelwe isebe ngalinye. isebe elinobuchule lidala imithetho, ifanelekileyo, kwaye limele isebe elinyuliweyo. ilungisa iingxube-ngqubano, i-odolo yemithetho, ilawula abameli, iqhuba inkqubo yamanye amazwe kumgangatho we-orhulumente. [[FLT] Isebe ngalinye] lichaza imithetho, licombulula iimpikiswano, kwaye lihlola imisebenzi ye-grona okanye ye-gconstrust. Le misebenzi ayinyaniswangagosagosa; baqinisekisa, kwaye bavumela ukuba elinye isebe libambe isebe.

Urhulumente Wasekuhlaleni: Ulawulo oluphambili

Oorhulumente basekuhlaleni balelona qondo lisondeleyo legunya kuninzi lwamaMelika. Baphatha ikonkile, ukhuseleko lukawonke-wonke, ukhuseleko lobuphembeleli, iindlela zasekuhlaleni, iipaki, kunye nezikolo. Nangona umGaqo-siseko wase-U.S. ungakhankanyanga ngokucacileyo oorhulumente basekuhlaleni, badalwa ngurhulumente worhulumente phantsi komgaqo we Dillon ̱ nguMthetho we-, othi unika ukuba oomasipala banegunya eligunya ligunyaziswe ngurhulumente. Amanye amagunya anika ulawulo lwasekhaya, kodwa isakhiwo se-branch sihlala sivumelana.

Isebe loMgaqo-siseko lasekuhlaleni

Igunya elisemthethweni kumgangatho wasekuhlaleni likwibhunga lobundlobongela [[FLT:]. La maqela amisela imithetho yelizwe , ibhodi yabaphathi [, okanye [ intlanganiso yequmrhu]. La maqela amisela imithetho yengingqi, imithetho elawula yonke into esuka kwimicimbi yengxolo. Umzekelo, ibhunga lesixeko lingadlula umthetho owezoshishino ukuthintela inkqubela yemizi ekufuphi nemimandla ehlala abantu, okanye avumele ukubhatala kwemali kunye nemibutho yomlilo. Kumazwe amakhulu afana neNew York okanye i-Los Angeles, ikomiti yembutho, i-odolorcers, kunye nee-operateshiptic projectives, iintlanganiso zezolawulo zedolophu ezikhoyo, apho abasebenzi bemibutho abasebenzi bezomthetho-oventi, apho abasebenzi bezomthetho basebenzisa khona iiprojective

Isebe eliphetheyo lasekuhlaleni

Amandla olawulo oluphezulu kumgangatho wasekuhlaleni asoloko ebanjwa ngumphathi-mikhosi (kwinkqubo yesazulu-inqanawa) okanye umlawuli olawulayo/i-manejala (kwinkqubo zebhunga-mphathi-majoni). Umlawuli wemikhosi okanye abaphathi-mikhosi, umisela iintloko zesebe njengeentloko zamapolisa kunye nabaphathi-butho basebenza, kunye noomphathi-mikhosi belizwe. Kwinkqubo yemihla ngemihla enamandla, umphathi-omatilone unegunya lolawulo olubanzi; kwiinkqubo ezibuthathaka, amandla abelane nebhungamele iinkonzo. Abaphathi-mikhosi balawula iinkonzo ezifana nookhiwongabo, irhafu, kunye nesebe lentlalo-ntlalo-ntle. Kwimibango yemisebenzi yedolophu, umlawuli bengingqinee-ofisi bengingqinee.

Isebe Lejaji Lasekuhlaleni

Iinkundla zasekuhlaleni zisingatha ukwaphulwa kwamasiko kamasipala, ukwaphulwa kwemiqathango, kunye neengxwabangxwaba yamakhaya. Imizekelo iquka iinkundla zetyala , iinkundla zamapolisa [, kunye [[FLT]] neenkundla zobubhali-zincwadi zeenkundla zenkundla zenkundla zetyala [[FLT:]] ezisoloko zinyulwa okanye zimiselwa ngamagosa asekuhlaleni, ezi zimisela ngqo iinkundla zetyala zolwaphulo-mthetho phambi kokuba zifudukele kwiinkundla zetyala. Zikwanjalo iimpikiswano zemicimbi yendawo, iimbambano zemali, iingxelo ezikhoyo, nezincinane.

URhulumente WeRhulumente: Imikhosi yeDemokhrasi

Oorhulumente belizwe basebenza phantsi komgaqo-siseko wabo, ongafanele ungquzulwane noMgaqo-siseko wase-U. Urhulumente ngamnye unerhuluneli, indlu yowiso-mthetho, kodwa isakhiwo esikhethekileyo siyahluka. Umzekelo, iNebraska inendlu yowiso-mthetho ene-unameral (ingingqi enye), ngoxa amaphondo amaninzi enenkqubo ze-bidameral. urhulumente unegunya elibanzi kwimfundo, kwizithuthi, kwinkathalo yempilo, kumthetho wolwaphulo-mthetho wolwaphulo-mthetho, kunye nezorhwebo lwamazwe. UJaji Louis Brandeis Braceis ichaza ngodumo njenge #8220; ii-acathematists zedemocracy ”[FLT] ngenxa yokuba azame ngemithetho ye-inshortsterolism okanye ngokwe-inshorence-mon-mon

Isebe Lesebe Lesizwe

Izindlu zowiso-mthetho zelizwe (ezisoloko zibizwa ngokuba yiNgqungquthela Jikelele, iNgqungquthela Yomthetho, okanye nje iLegislature) ziseka imithetho esebenzayo kwiphondo lonke. Zinendlu yabameli (okanye iNdibano yeNdlu yowiso-mthetho] ne Ukungathathi-nxaxheba , namalungu anyuliweyo kwiphondo. Imithetho imisela irhafuthezo, iqinisekisa uhlahlo-mali, iqinisekisa ukumiswa kwendlu ye-gratoi, kunye nokungaphakath-mli kwintlanganiso yephondo. Kwakhona baqhelisela ulawulo oluphengululi lwesizwe olufuna imeko-meko. Umzekelo, ikomiti yemfundo i-modensile yombuso inokudibana nomgaqo-mali yesikolo ngonyaka, nangona ezinye ii-texandenethi ze-Texane.

Isebe elinolawulo oluphezulu leLizwe

ngumphathi-mikhosi oyintloko wezwe, onyulwe ngabavoti ngokwexesha elisisigxina (ngokuqhelekileyo iminyaka emine). Irhuluneli i̱ amagunya aquka ukutyikitya okanye ukukhupha iindleko, ukumisela imiyalelo yegunya, ukumisela amalungu equarte (i-attoney jikelele, unobhala-zwe, njl.), ukuyalela urhulumente wesizwe, kunye nokunika uxolelo. Ngokungafaniyo nomphathi-U.S., umongameli wephondo udla ngokubelana amandla olawulo oluphezulu nabaphathi abanyuliweyo abafana nomphathi-mikhosi abaphezulu, igqhinga-gqhinga, kunye ne-comfollererroller, inkqubo eyaziwayo [[FFFOLD:].[FFLD]

Isebe Lejaji Lesizwe

Iinkundla zezomthetho zitolika imithetho nemithetho-siseko. Zisingatha uninzi lweempikiswano zomthetho eUnited States, kuquka umthetho wezemizalwane, ii-tort, ii-crts, kunye namalungelo empahla. Esi sakhiwo siquka iinkundla zezomthetho (izihlandlo ezithile zibizwa ngokuba ziinkundla eziphezulu okanye zesithili-trilitili), iinkundla zeenkundla zomthetho [ [iiiinkundla yetyala], kunye [[FLT]] nenkundla ephakamileyo yetyala (isidla ngokuqhelekileyo ibizwa njengeNkundlalelwano ephakamileyo yephondo). Abagwebi banokunyulwa (inxenye okanye abangeyonxalenye), okanye abatyunjwe yirugosa-okhesa kwiinkqubo ezinyusi, okanye iinkqubo ezinyulwayomthetho ezinyuliweyo zetyala ezinyuliweyo zetyala eliphakamileyo.

Urhulumente woManyano: ISicwangciso

Urhulumente worhulumente olawulayo i’ amasebe amathathu achazwa kuMgaqo-siseko wase-U.S. kwaye asebenza phantsi kwenkqubo yamandla adwelisweyo nachazwayo. Abaqulunqi balenza isebe ngalinye elinomda okhethekileyo: iBhunga alikwazi ukwenza imithetho, uMongameli akanakwenza imithetho (ngaphandle kwe-veto), kunye norhulumente wejaji-jaji onegunya eliphambili kukhuselo lwesizwe, inkqubo yangaphandle, urhwebo, ukufuduka, kunye nemali. Amandla ayo alinganiselwe kwabo abadweliswe kuludwe kuMgaqo-siseko, ngelixa uLawulo lweshumi loMdalelo lugcina onke amanye amagunya kumazwe okanye abantu.

Isebe Lomthetho Womanyano

Ingqungquthela yindlu yowiso-mthetho ye-bitaral eyenziwe ngendlu yabameli Amalungu angoomongameli (amalungu angama-435 ahlulwa ngabemi) kunye i-Senate[ (amalungu alikhulu, amabini kwisizwe ngasinye). Indlu iqalisa iindleko zemali kwaye inamandla okungawalawuli amagosa asekuhlaleni. Indlu iqinisekisa ukumiswa komongameli (abagwebi bobufama-mikhosi, oomatilombhishophu), ivumela izivumelwano, ibambe iimvavanyo. ̱ umsebenzi oyintloko ngumthetho, kodwa iqhuba nophando olubanzi, iphethe abameli abaphethe ngeemeko-manyeneyo ngezolwazi, nangeenkqubo zegunya lemali. I-Grona ye-Genethi ye-Gwasethi ye-Genecreast [Fographic, i-Foctive, i-Foctives] kunye ne-ography] kunye ne-ography

Isebe elinolawulo oluphezulu loManyano

umongameli we-United States usebenza njengentloko yorhulumente kunye nentloko yorhulumente, unyulwe rhoqo kwiminyaka emine edlula kwiKholeji yase-Electoral. UMongameli unyanzelisa imithetho yolawulo, ukhupha imiyalelo yomthetho ngegunya (olawulwa kukuhlola kwezomthetho), uyayalela amajoni axhobileyo, athetha izivumelwano (othobela iCantenate evunywa yiBhunga), kwaye umisela amagosa angoorhulumente. Isebe eliphetheyo likwaquka [[FOLT:2] i-Cabinet[ amasebe alawulayo, anjengokhuselo, uConicel, uCost, kunye noSekela-Jaji) kunye nabameli abazimeleyo njengabameli be-Mongameli be-Atlantia. Umongameli we-Atlanti-Atlanti.

Isebe Lezahlulelo Zomalumelwano

Ijaji yephondo iquke iNkundla yeSithili iqulethwe yiNkundla yeSiphakamiso (iiinkundla ezisithoba) kunye neenkundla zephondo ezimiselwe yiKhowumbini yeSithili, kuquka iiNkundla zeSithili, iNkundla yeNkundla yeNkqulo (iiiiiiinkundla zeNkqulo), kunye neenkundla ezikhethekileyo (umvolomvo) (umz., iNkundla yeNkundla yeNtloko yeNtshona). Abagwebi bamatyala, igwebi beNtloko yezo Ntshona Koloni) ayimiselwangasayinwa nguMongameli kwaye iqinisekiswa yiNt. [5] IiNkundla zeNkundla ezilawulayongalo.[3]

Iingqikelelo nolwamkelo Ngaphaya Kwamanqanaba

Unxulumano phakathi kwamasebe kumgangatho ngamnye karhulumente lubangela inkqubo esebenzayo yokuphendula. Nazi iindlela ezingundoqo ezigcina ulungelelwano:

  • [[NTL:0] Igunya elingaphezulu kwegunya: Kumanqanaba orhulumente nombuso, iintlanga zowiso-mthetho zingawalawula ama-veto, abalawuli abangomnye, abathinteli ngemali, baze bangavumi ukuqinisekisa ukudibana. Kumgangatho wasekuhlaleni, amabhunga angalawula umlawuli wedolophu (ngokokuba ngowona mvukelo omkhulu).
  • [[Umthetho:0] Iphumeza ngaphaya koMthetho: Abalawuli bangawungenisa umthetho, babize iintlanganiso ezikhethekileyo, kwaye basebenzise imiyalelo yolawulo ukudlula kwindlu yowiso-mthetho kwimida engokwasemthethweni).
  • Inkundla eququzelelayo phezu kwazo zombini: ingakwazi ukubetha imithetho okanye izenzo zolawulo ezichasene nomgaqo-siseko okanye ezigqitha igunya. Iinkundla zelizwe zingenza okufanayo phantsi komgaqo-siseko wesizwe.
  • [[NKQUBO:0] Imithetho esemthethweni phezu kweJaji: Iyinza ukuseka (okanye ukupheliswa) kweenkundla ezincinci, ukumisela ulawulo, nokuvumela okanye ukugatya ii-amunees. IBhunga likwanokucebisa izindululo zomgaqo-siseko zokubhukuqa izigqibo.
  • [[Umthetho:0] Izabelo ngaphaya kwesigwebo: Abalawuli bamisela abagwebi (abathobela ukuvunywa) kwaye baxolele okanye baxolele (kumhlaba nakumanqanaba orhulumente).

Oku kuhlola kusebenza kungekuphela kumgangatho omnye kodwa naphakathi kwemigangatho. Umzekelo, iinkundla zesizwe zingahlola imithetho karhulumente ukuba iyangqubana nomthetho karhulumente okanye nomGaqo-siseko (uSipremacy Claus). Ngokuchaseneyo, iinkundla zikarhulumente zinokutolika umthetho wesizwe xa kubandakanyeka iintshukumisa zikarhulumente, zimele ziphinde zihlolwe zokugqibela yiNkundla ePhakamileyo yase-U.S.

Imizekelo yehlabathi lokwenene yesenzo sophatho

Ukuhlolisisa iimeko ezithile kubonisa indlela amasebe asebenza ngayo:

  • esendaweni ekhoyo: Ibhunga ledolophu lidlula umthetho wengxolo emva kwezikhalazo malunga nemivalo esebusuku. Usodolophu ubonakalisa yona, kodwa isebe lamapolisa (elinqumlayo) maliyinyanzelise. Ohlala phantsi komthetho ocelw' imingeni kwinkundla kamasipala. Ijaji ingawuphakamisa umthetho okanye iwubethe ukuba isophula imithetho okanye umgaqo-siseko worhulumente.
  • Isimo: Indlu yowiso-mthetho yaseKhalifoniya igqithisa umthetho omisela amaxhoba ekharbon. Irhuluneli iwuphawula, kwaye iqumrhu logcino-moya lorhulumente (umbutho onqumlayo) lidala imimiselo yokuwuzalisekisa. Iqela loshishino liququzelela, liphikisana nomthetho nemithetho yolawulo olucocekileyo. Inkundla ephakamileyo iva ukuba umthetho uyasebenza phantsi komgaqo-siseko, kodwa kwakhona iphawula ukuba ukukhutshwa kolawulo lwasemthethweni lungasebenzisa umqondiso okhoyo.
  • I-FLT: Congress idlula uMthetho weNtolongo eNgalawulekiyo (ACA) ngo-2010, enegunya lomntu ngamnye elifuna i-inshorensi yempilo. Emva kokuzalisekisa, uchaza izihlandlo ezininzi zivavanya umthetho. INkundla ePhakamileyo, i-Motional Federation of Independent v. Sebelius [2020], iphakamisa igunya elisebenzayo leBhunga i-& 8817; imisela amandla okurhabalisa kodwa imidatha yolwando. Oku kubonisa ukukhangela i-mthetho kunye namasebe olawulo, ngelixalwayo iyaqhubeka ukulungiselela umthetho omthetho olwo.

Ulwalamano oludityanisiweyo nolawulo lwesebe

Amasebe amathathu awasebenzi ngokwahlukana ngamanqanaba antsonkothileyo; ayadibana ngeendlela ezintsonkothileyo. Ngokomzekelo, iindlu zowiso-mthetho zisoloko zibongoza iKhomishini yezemali karhulumente okanye isiphumlisi solawulo. Irhuluneli zingasebenza namasebe alawulayo esizwe ngexesha leentlekele zemvelo, zisebenzisana FEMA. Iinkundla zikarhulumente zisoloko zisebenzisa umthetho wesizwe, njengaxa zifaka imiyalelo yamalungelo abantu phantsi kwama- 42 U.S.C. ngo1998. Umgaqo we-[FLT:] .[FLT]] uqinisekisa ukuba umgangatho ngamnye worhulumente uyaqhubeka ulawulo lolawulo, njengoko uhlonela imidalo yabanye.

Enye indawo ephawulekayo yoxinezeleko nguMgaqo-gosa wohlanga. IRhuluneli iyalela uKhuselo lwesizwe (isebe elinqumlayo) ngexesha loxolo, kodwa uMongameli angayalela (phantsi koMthetho woluHlutyo loLunga) ukwenzela iingozi zobuzwe. Kule meko, umphathi-ngalo rhulumente onegunya lolawulo okwexeshana ugqithisa igunya lorhulumente, uvavanyo olugunyazisiweyo nguMgaqo-siseko ̱ izigwebo zomkhosi.

Isiphelo: Ukugqalwa Kuyinto Ebalulekileyo Kokwahlukana Kwamandla

Ukusuka kwibhunga elincinane ledolophu ukuya kwiNkundla ePhakamileyo yase-U.S., isakhiwo sesithathu sebranch sinika indlela eqinisekisiweyo yokusasaza amandla nokukhusela inkululeko. Oorhulumente basekuhlaleni bayisebenzisa ngobuchule ukuphendula iimfuno zoluntu; oorhulumente bayisebenzisa ukwenza uvavanyo lwemigaqo eyahlukeneyo; kwaye urhulumente wesizwe uxhomekeke kuyo ukulawula uhlanga oluzizigidi ezingama-330. Ukuqonda indlela isebe ngalinye elisebenza ngayo kumgangatho ngamnye kwenza abemi bafumane ukuphendula korhulumente wabo nokuqonda xa inkqubo isebenza njengoko kucetyiwe.

Ukufundwa okubhekele phaya, uhlolo lwe- olukhoyo USA.gov ushwankathelo lwamasebe amathathu , umbhalo opheleleyo weU.S. , kunye neConference yesizwe yesizwe yeLegislatures ̱ intloko yeendlu zowiso-mthetho. Ezi zixhobo zinika ukuqonda okunzulu ekusetyenziselweni okuqhubekayo kolwahlulo lwamagunya ngaphaya korhulumente waseMelika.