Indima yesiseko somGaqo-siseko

UMgaqo-siseko weUnited States, owagunyaziswa ngo-1788 emva kokulwa nzima kwenkululeko, uhlala uwumthetho ophakamileyo welizwe. Abalahli bawo, abathandabuza kakhulu igunya elisembindini, bayila inkqubo eya kunika urhulumente wesizwe amandla ngexesha elinye ize inyanzele ukufikelela kwawo. Le njongo idibeneyo ``ukusungula urhulumente osebenzayo ngeli xesha ukhusela inkululeko nolawulo lomntu ngamnye. Ngumthetho-‘‘ilona gunya lihlala lihleliyo. ’

Ukuqonda ezi zikhuselo kubalulekile kummi ngamnye. UmGaqo-siseko asiyonto ekhoyo kodwa sisakhiwo esiphilayo esichazwa rhoqo ziinkundla, abamisi-mthetho, kunye nabaxhasi bezomthetho. Ukusuka ekuhlukanisweni kwamagunya ukuya kwiBhili yamaLungelo kunye neZigqibo zeMfazwe Zangaphakathi, umaleko ngamnye wongeza ubunzulu kukhuseleko nxamnye nobuzwilakhe. Ngokuhlolisisa ezi nkqubo, sibona indlela umGaqo-siseko ohlala usiso sisixhobo esibalulekileyo sokulondoloza inkululeko nokuqinisekisa okusesikweni kubo bonke abantu.

Ukwahlukana Kwamandla: Igunya Lokuphelisa Ulwaphulo - mthetho Lokuthintela Ukunqongophala

Abaxhasi, bezoba kwintanda-bulumko yezobupolitika yaseMontesquieu kunye namava abo okulawulwa kwethanga, baqonda ukuba amandla ajolise ekusetyenzisweni kakubi. Inqaku I, II, kunye no-I le-CII lomGaqo-siseko zenza amasebe amathathu ahlukeneyo karhulumente, ngalinye elinendlela yalo ephambili. Olu lwahlulo alungolawulo nje kuphela kodwa lungumqobo owenziwe ngabom nxamnye nayo nayiphi na into eqokelelwa kakhulu.

Isebe Elinomthetho (Ingcaphephe I)

Ingqungquthela, eqanjwe yiNdlu yabameli neNdlu yeNdlu yeQela, inikwe amandla okwenza imithetho. Unyulo olungqalileyo lwendlu oluhlaziywe ngabantu luqinisekisa ukuphendula okuqhelekileyo, ngelixa iNdlu yeNdlu (eyakhethwa ekuqaleni yizindlu zowiso-mthetho) imela izilangazelelo zikarhulumente. Amandla owiso-mthetho athelekelelwa ngakumbi [ Amandla axhotyisiweyo [[FLT: 1] adweliswe kwiQumrhu I, Icandelo 8, elithi libekel'athisa iBhunga kumagunya akhethekileyo anjengemali engqekelelwa, ukukhuthaza imfazwe, ukuvakalisa ushishino, nokunyusa umkhosi. Unyaka olishumi wonyaka ugxininiso lommiselo: agunya angagunyaziswanganikwanga kumazwe aseUnited States okanye abantu abagcinelwe kumaphondo okanye abantu.

Isebe Elilawulayo (Article II)

UMongameli ubekwa ityala lokunyanzelisa imithetho edluliswa yiBhunga. UmGaqo-siseko ubeka igunya elilawulayo kumntu omnye, ebangela ukuphendula kodwa efuna ukukhangelwa. UMongameli weveto uyakwazi ukuqinisekisa umthetho, kodwa ulinganiswa ngamandla eKhomishini okulawula i-veto kunye ne-31. Umlawuli ulawula umkhosi njengoMyaleli-iNkulu-Chief, kodwa kuphela iNgqungquthela enokuthi ivakalise imfazwe, kodwa ingumlinganiselo obalulekileyo ocetyelwe ukunqanda ukufika komkhosi ongowakhelwe ukunqanda ukuquququlwa kwe-anderauiauiterism.

Isebe Lejaji (Article III)

Iinkundla zephondo, ezikhokelwa yiNkundla ePhakamileyo, zitolika umthetho zicombulule neempikiswano. Eli gunya livumela iinkundla ukuba zibethe imithetho okanye izenzo eziphetheyo ezichasene nomgaqo-siseko. Nangona abagwebi bemiselwe ubomi (ngendlela entle yokuziphatha), banikwa ityala elinguMongameli kwaye baqinisekiswe yiBhunga leNtlalo, ukuphendula kwezopolitiko. I-jaji ye-Gadia ibalulekile ekukhuseleni abambalwa kwimibutho ephethe kakubi.

Ngokwahlula amandla phakathi kwamasebe amathathu alinganayo, umGaqo-siseko uqinisekisa ukuba akukho sebe linye linokulawula. Isebe ngalinye linongqukuva yalo, kwaye ngalinye lixhomekeke kwezinye ukusebenza (ukukhuhlana kwangabom okubambezelayo phantsi kwesenzo sikarhulumente kunye nemikhosi elalanisayo.

Iingqinipho - bume Nokulungelelana Okuqheliselwayo

Ukwahlulwa kwamagunya kuqiniswa luluhlu lwemisebenzi ehamba-hambayo. Isebe ngalinye linezixhobo zokuxhathisa ukungenelela kwezinye, lidala ulungelelwaniso olunamandla oluye lwayityhubela imfazwe yamakhaya ukuya kumahlazo aseWatergate.

Iingcebiso Zomthetho Kumandla eeGqwenga nakuMagunya eeNgwebo

IBhunga liphethe amandla emali kunye nesivumelwano. Ngokuphawulekayo, iKhomishini ingasetyenziswa ngaphandle kwesixhobo sokulawula. Ingaphanda izenzo zolawulo ngokuva noobhontsi. IBhunga liqinisekisa ukumiswa komongameli (abagwebi, oopostile, oomabhalane, kwaye ifaka izivumelwano. IBhunga elinamandla lingamkhupha uMongameli, uMongameli, uMongameli, kunye nabagwebi bombuso ukwenzela "Isizathu, iSifumba, okanye ezinye ii-Crimeages eziphezulu kunye neMisdears" le nkqubo, esetyenziswa ngokungekho mthethweni, ihlala ingumzekelo onamandla. Umzekelo, ukungathethi kukaMongameli Andrewia Johnson (1868) kunye nokurhoxiswa kukaMongameli uMongameli uNix Richard4)

Icandelo elilawulayo lihlola igunya lomthetho nelokugweba

UMongameli angawafaka amatyala, anyanzelise iKhomfa ekwakheni umthetho kwakhona. Ukuba ii-3 ezimbini zezindlu zombini ziyavumelana, iveto ingangachaphazeki, kodwa isisongelo sisoloko sibumba ulwahlulo lomthetho. UMongameli unawo amandla [ okulawula emacaleni karhulumente, anika uvavanyo kubunzima bokulawula, njengoko kuboniwe kuMongameli Gerald Ford's Fordore forre of Richard Nixon.

Ukuhlolisisa Imithetho Yamandla

Ngapha uhlolo lwezokhuselo, iinkundla zigqiba ukuba imithetho okanye imiyalelo yegunya elilawulayo iyavumelana nomGaqo-siseko. Isigqibo seNkundla Ephakamileyo kwi ulutsha oluncinane shell & Lamp; Tube Co.. Sayer [195] [1920] yavala uMongameli uphango wesiqhushumbisi wesinyithi sentsimbi ngexesha lemfazwe yaseKorea, iqinisekisa ukuba kwanezenzo zomongameli wexesha lemfazwe zifuna igunya lomgaqo-siseko okanye umthetho. Kutshanje, [[FLTL: 4.] Imperectedment ye Homeland Security. Regents zeYuniversi yaseCalifornia [Foct:2020]

Ezi ngqikelelo zidityanisiweyo zenza inkqubo apho amandla esoloko exoxwa khona. Akukho sebe lingasebenza lingaze lingaphazamisi ixesha elide, kwaye nayiphi na imigudu yokuqokelela amandla ingaxhathiswa lelinye isebe. Oku kungumGaqo-siseko oyintloko ekuthinteleni urhulumente ophazanyisiweyo.

Isiqinisekiso Samalungelo: Imida Engekho Nto Emandla Karhulumente

UmGaqo-siseko wokuqala wawungenawo umthetho wamalungelo, ukuswela okuphantse kudilizile. Ukukhusela imvume, iKhomishini yokuqala yacebisa ukubuyiselwa kwemithetho elishumi elinesibini, elishumi kuzo laqinisekiswa ngo1791 njengeBhili yamaLungelo. Ezi zindululo zalela ngokucacileyo urhulumente wezwe ukuba angaphumi kwiinkululeko ezithile, ukubeka izithintelo zomthetho nezenzo zolawulo.

UMthetho Wokuqala Ohlaziyiweyo: Iliwa Lobomi Bedemocratic

IBhunga aliyi kwenza mthetho mayela nokusekwa konqulo, okanye ukunqanda ukusetyenziswa kwalo ngokukhululekileyo; okanye ukuvalela inkululeko yokuthetha, okanye yokushicilela; okanye ilungelo labantu lokuhlanganisa ngoxolo, nokucela urhulumente ukuba alungise izityholo. Le nguqu iyakukhusela imisebenzi yedemokhrasi: ukukwazi ukugxeka urhulumente, ukwenza utshintsho. Inkundla Ephakamileyo ibambelele kwelokuba uLawulo Lokuqala lusebenza ngokuphuma kwi 1479th Amend Amend Amendmentment (inporation). Le ngxelo efana [[FLT: 0] ikhusela umsebenzi wedemokhrasitiki. Co Sullivanton Times. v [FL:] [196]))) i-1964] i-mcinelkjojo.

Uhlaziyo Lwesine: Ukungabikho Komntu Oza Kumkelwa Nocwangciso Olufaneleyo

Ilungelo labantu lokukhuseleka kubantu babo, izindlu, amaphepha, kunye neziphumo zokungaqiqisi nokuxhuzula akuyi kwaphulwa. Eli lungiselelo lifuna ukuba kufakwe umthetho osekelwe kwi [ unobangela ongenakugwetywa [. Umthetho [[FLT:] [FLT]] [[2] othenjiweyo], omiselwe [[FLT], [[196]], [umqondiso we-'FLT], owekelwe kuvavanyo olukwiminyaka esetyenzisiweyo. [ii-United States[FLT] [[5] [1914]] [iiiindawo yokhuseleko] kwaye osetyenziswayo kulwazi oluqhelekileyo. [FLT] [FLT]].[FLT] [127]] [iiiinkcukacha zalecuthenjiwe-oksi] [iiiiiii]

IsiHlomelo Sesihlanu Nesesithandathu: Ubulungisa Kwinkqubela Yezaphuli - mthetho

IsiHlanziso sesihlanu sikhusela ekuzibekeleni ngokwaso (ilungelo lokuhlala uthulile), iingozi eziphindwe kabini, kunye nokuncitshiswa kobomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla ngaphandle kwenkqubo efanelekileyo yomthetho. UMthetho weSithandathu wokuLandliswa kweMpanziso uqinisekisa ilungelo lokuvavanywa ngokukhawuleza nokungacalulwa nguwonke wonke, ijaji engenamkhethe, uncedo lwecebo, nelungelo lokuthetha namangqina. La malungelo aqinisekisa ukuba urhulumente akanako ukubohlwaya abantu ngabanye ngokungenanjongo. Ilungelo lokucebisa landiswa kumthetho Gideon v. Wainright[, ucela ukunikezela ngamagqwetha abamangaleli abangenamali abanokukwazi ukuhlawula igunya elingaphaya kommidanga.

Ukuhlaziywa Kwemiqathango Esibhozo: Inkohlakalo Nesohlwayo Esingaqhelekanga

Ibheyile engagqithisileyo ayizukufunwa, okanye intlawulo egqithisileyo ebekwe, okanye isohlwayo senkohlakalo nengaqhelekanga esibekiweyo. Le ngxaki ikhe yachazwa ukulinganisela isohlwayo sokufa (umz., Furman v. Georgia] ngo1971] isohlwayo sekohlwayo serhafu esipheliswe okwethutyana) nokuvavanya iimeko zentolongo. Ngoxa ingxoxo iqhubeka ngomlinganiselo we-"cruel kunye nengaqhelekanga," isiphelo simisela isiseko sokuziphatha esisisiseko somthetho ukuba isohlwayo sikarhulumente asinakuba sisohlwaywe.

IBhili yamaLungelo isebenza njengomgaqo-siseko ongachananga: ixelela urhulumente into engenakuyenza. Ngokudwelisa imiqathango ethile, umGaqo-siseko udala ummandla wozimeleno ongenakuhlaselwa ngurhulumente.

UMthetho Wokwenziwa Kwemigunyathi Weshumi Eline: Ukhuseleko Olulinganayo Nenkqubo Elindelekileyo

Emva kweMfazwe yamakhaya, umGaqo-siseko waphinda wabhalwa ngokusisiseko yiMimiselo yokuHlaziya, ingakumbi uMphetho weMigaqo weMigaqo we-14 (1868). ICandelo 1 livakalisa oku: "Bonke abantu abazelwe okanye abadaliweyo eUnited States, kwaye abaphantsi kwegunya labo, ngabemi baseUnited States kunye noRhulumente apho behlala khona. Akukho Rhulumente iya kwenza okanye inyanzelisa nawuphi na umthetho oya kuvala amalungelo okanye ukhuseleko lwabemi baseUnited States; okanye nawuphi na uRhulumente ongayi kumhlutha na umntu wobomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla, ngaphandle kwenkqubo efanelekileyo, esemthethweni; okanye aphikisele nawuphi na umntu ekukhuselwe kuyo imithetho elinganayo."

Ukukhusela u-Claus

I- Equalial Protection Claus iyi-injini yomgaqo-siseko yokulwa nocalucalulo. Isetyenziselwa ukubetha imithetho ephatha abantu ngokwahlukileyo ngokwemvelaphi yesizwe, yendoda neyokunye ukurhanela. Imfundiso ye ye-ligiletisty isebenza xa umthetho ujolise i"customssce" (uhlobo lohlanga) okanye imvelaphi yohlanga) okanye ulawulo lwe-okscedom olungundoqo. Urhulumente kufuneka angqine umdla onyanzelele ukuba umthetho ufanele ufikelele.

Amatyala aquke i- Brown v. Ibhodi yemfundo (1954), evakalisa imithetho yorhulumente yokuseka izikolo zikawonke wonke zabafundi abamnyama nabamhlophe abangengobafundi basemthethweni. INkundla yathi "izakhiwo zemfundo ezihlukeneyo azilingani ngokwemvelo. ” Le sigqibo sayibhukuqa i"imfundiso kodwa iyalingana" ukusuka v.[FLT] [1866] [1866] yaza yasungula intshukumo yamalungelo abantu. Iimeko ezifana [[FLT: 4.]] lkgnow. v [1967]) kunye noluvo oluthelelwa phantsi komgalelo oluthetho.[5]

Ilindelekile Claus

I-Bactive Processource Claus inomlinganiselo emibini: iprocedal kunye nenkqubo efunekayo ifuna imigaqo elungileyo xa urhulumente ehlutha umntu othile wobomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla (i-conotice, ukuva, kunye nomenzi-wokungakhethi. iNkundla esezantsi elawulayo ikhusela amalungelo asisiseko angabekwanga ngokucacileyo kwiMithetho-siseko, njengamalungelo elungelo kwimfihlo. [[FLT:]] [[FLT]]][FLT][127]]] [1277]], iNkufumana ukuba umGaqo-siseko unelungelo lokukhupha imfihlo umlomo ukhupha isigqibo sokuqhomfa komfazi. [[5], umgaqo othe nzulu wokukhupha isisuso somthetho othe ngqo.]

ISindululo seshumi elinesine sisixhobo esiyintloko sokusebenzisa iBhili yamaLungelo kwiimeko (ukuhlahlela). Ngaphandle kwawo, amatyala aya kuba khululekile ukucinezela ukuthetha, ukuseka iinkonzo, okanye ukukhanyela iinkundla zabachopheli-tyala. Ngemfundiso yokuzibandakanya ngokukhetha, iNkundla Ephakamileyo iye ngokuthe ngcembe yasebenzisa phantse onke amalungiselelo eBhili yamaLungelo kurhulumente nakoorhulumente basekuhlaleni, iqinisekisa ukuba akukho mgangatho karhulumente unokuthi unyathe nyawo inkululeko esisiseko.

Ucelomngeni Lwale Mihla Nokuphakamisa Izinto

Ngaphandle kwale migaqo yokhuseleko eyomeleleyo, ukhuseleko lomGaqo-siseko aluzinqumli. Zifuna ukuqwalaselwa okuqhubekayo, uhlolo lwezomthetho olusebenzayo, kunye nokuganana kwabantu. Ubugcisa obutsha, ubugrogrisi behlabathi jikelele, kunye nokhuseleko lwesizwe luvavanya imida yokukhusela komgaqo-siseko. Umzekelo, iUSA PATRIOTTTT Act (2001) Amandla ongezelelweyo okuhlola, ekhokelela ekudityani umlinganiselo phakathi kokhuseleko nokhuseleko kunye nemfihlo . I-UNICENGEZIWERENTI zeNkulawula izicelo zesiqinisekiso, kodwa abagxeki bephikisa ukuba ukuqokelelwa kogcino-data olusasasasasazi kukwa-Dabahlanumganise.

Amandla obungameli akwandisiwe ngokuphawulekayo kwixesha langoku. Urhulumente wolawulo, kunye nobuninzi bawo bamaqumrhu, uphakamisa imibuzo malunga nabathunywa begunya lemithetho,(a) ukuvavanya ukubekwa kweQumrhu I ekuvunyelaniseni amandla emithetho kwiBhunga. INkundla ePhakamileyo ] icebisa umdla ohlaziyiweyo wokungagunyaziswa kwemfundiso [[] ithe yaphelelwa, kodwa amatyala akutshanje afana Goundation v. United States (2020) icebisa ukuba kuhlaziswe umdla wokubeka abathunywa abanika ingqiqo engakumbi.

Amaqonga ezentlalo , ngexa engengawo abadlali bezosasazo zixhobo zikarhulumente, angathintela intetho ngeendlela eziquka amaxabiso oMgaqo-nkqubo Wokuqala. Inkundla imele ithethe ngokuzeleyo ngokudibana kweqonga lobungcathu kunye nesenzo sikarhulumente, kodwa amatyala anjenge Packingham v. North Carolina[[FL:1] (2017]) iqinisekisa ukuba unxibelelwano lwentlalo luyindawo yentlalo yengiselwano yengiselwano yentlalo ukwenzela ukuba ithethe.

Umlo wokulingana uyaqhubeka. Inkundla elinganayo yoKhuselo uClaus icetyiselwe ukucel ’ umngeni imithetho ye-ID, igerrymaning, kunye ne-yes. Selby County v. Umbangi (20203), iNkundla yagalela isicwangciso esingundoqo soMthetho wamaLungelo ka-1965, iphikisa into yokuba indlela yokugqiba ukuba ngowuphi urhulumente ofuna ukuvulwa komthetho we-preservation. Esi sigqibo sakhokelela ekuvuleni kwemiqathango entsha kumazwe amaninzi, ukuphakamisa imibuzo etsha malunga nocalucalulo lohlanga kwivoti. Intlanganiso yemithetho ye-Congression inegunya lokuhlaziya inkqubo, kodwa i-Rightcoock iye yasithintela inyathelo.

Ukuqonda ukhuseleko lomGaqo-siseko akuyomfundo nje; ngumsebenzi woluntu. Uxwebhu olude lusuka kubuchule balo bokuzivumelanisa nokulungisa kunye nokutolika kwetyala. Umbhalo wokuqala usenokuba awuqinisekisi ngokucacileyo ukulingana kwamabhinqa okanye iindidi ezincinane, kodwa imigaqo yayo yenkululeko norhulumente olinganiselweyo ikhutshwe ngobunzima nangokutolika.

[[FLT:] [[FLT:] Umbhalo wobuzwe wogcino-lwazi woMgaqo-siseko, [ Iqumrhu Lezolwazi Lemithetho [[[[FLT:]]] Elingenamthetho [[FLT]][5] Ibhodi yemiqathango yeNtlango yeNkqumlo [[FL]], kunye nemizekelo yenkwendlela engundoqo yeNkundla enjenge [[FLT].[12] [12].[12]

Isiphelo

Inkcubeko yomGaqo-siseko ixhomekeke ekudibaniseni kwayo imiqathango yesakhiwo namalungelo acacileyo. Ukwahlulwa kwamandla kunye nokuhlola kunye nolungelelwaniso kuthintela naliphi na isebe ekuqokelelweni kwegunya elingathintelwanga. IBhili yamaLungelo ibala iinkululeko ezithile ezingenakuchaphazeleka ngurhulumente, ngoxa iSindululo seshumi elinesine soLawulo sinwebela ezo zikhuselweyo ukuze kumiselwe ulawulo olulinganayo kwaye sifune unyango olulinganayo kubo bonke abantu.

Kanti umGaqo-siseko awululo uxwebhu olugqibeleleyo. Ekuqaleni lujongene nobukhoboka, lukhanyele amabhinqa, lumisele ukubala abantu abangamakhoboka. Kodwa ngokulungisa, ngokutolika, ngokucaciswa kwezasemthethweni, kunye nentsebenziswano, iye yatshintshwa ngokuthe ngcembe yaphucuka ukuze iphile kakuhle ngokweenjongo zayo zokusekwa. Uhambo olusuka [ Dered Scott v. Sandford[FLD] [[56]] [18.1] [18,1], eyala ukuba ngummeli waseAfrika, ithelekele ilungelo lokuhlala e-Afrika, [iiiiii-Oberge wafelv v. [iFLT:3]] [2010], oluqinisekisa ukulingana nomgangatho womtshato, njengoko ilizwe eliqhubekela ukumelana nobunzima obuphezulu, ukurhoxabana kwezoqoqosho, ukurhoxabana kwemali, ukurhoxanduku.