Ukwazisa: Intsingiselo Ehlala Ihleli Yenkqubo Eza Kusetyenziswa Kubantu AbangeyoNtloko

Inkqubo esisiseko esisiseko imi njengenye yezona mfundiso zinamandla kodwa zidityanisiweyo kumthetho-siseko waseMelika. Enyanzelweni yazo, lo mgaqo uqinisekisa ukuba amalungelo athile asisiseko aqiniswe ngokunzulu kwimbali yesizwe nakwizithethe kangangokuba urhulumente akanakukwazi ukuwachaphaza, kungakhathaliseki iinkqubo ezilandelayo. Ngokungafaniyo nenkqubo efunekayo, egxininisa kwimigaqo esesikweni karhulumente xa ehluza umntu wobomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla, engaphantsi kwendlela efunekayo yokuhlola inkqubo efuna ukuxhathisa yomthetho ngokwawo. Ibuza ukuba umthetho usophula ukulunga okungaqwalaselwa kokusisiseko ngokokuba akukho mlinganiselo wenkqubo yawo ingenakuthethelele i-bripripd.

Le ngcamango iphengulule izigqibo eziphawulekayo ezingokwasese, umtshato, intsapho, kunye nozimele mzimba, iyenza ibe sisiseko somthetho wale mihla. Noko ke, iye yadala impikiswano enzulu ngendima efanelekileyo yejaji kwibutho ledemokhrasi. Abahlalutyi baphikisa ngelithi inkqubo encinci efunekayo ivumela abagwebi ukuba bamisele imigaqo ekhethelwe umntu ngamnye, ngoxa abaxhasi besithi ibalulekile ekukhuseleni inkululeko yomntu ngamnye nxamnye nenkcaso yomthetho womthetho-siseko. Ukuqonda indaleko, ukusebenza, kunye neempikiswano eziqhubekayo ezinxulumene nenkqubo ephantsi kolawulo lobudemokhrasi kubaluleke kakhulu kuye kufune ukuba nabani na ofuna ukuqonda amandla omthetho womthetho-siseko wangoku.

Isiseko Sembali: Ukusuka Kwinkcazelo Ukuya Kwisiseko

Isiseko sombhalo ofunekayo kwinkqubo encinci efunekayo kuMqathango ka-Act Claus weMfundo yeNkqutyana neyeshumi elinesine. IsiHlamlisi seNkqutyana, esamkelwe ngo-1791, sinika isiqinisekiso sokuba akukho mntu oya "kuphulukana nobomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla, ngaphandle kwenkqubo efanelekileyo yomthetho." IsiHlamrhu sokuHlambulula iMbeko seshumi elinesine, esamkelwe ngowe-1868, sandisa lo mqathango mnye kurhulumente. Kwiinkulungwane yeshumi elinesithoba, iinkundla zitolika ezizichaza ngokuyintloko ezi ziqinisekiso zokungalinganiyo, ukuva, inkundla engakhethi, kunye nokungacacimiyo. Ukutshintshela kokufunda komgalelo oluncinci kwavelayo kwavela ngokuthe ngcembe nangokwempikiswano.

Ityala lendlu-mngcipheko kunye namalungelo okanye ii-Immunitunic

Isitshixo sexesha langaphambili seza [FLT][1] Ityala leNdlu yokuHlala-mali [1873], apho iNkundla ePhakamileyo yawachaza ngokufutshane amalungelo okanye iImmunic Clause yeSimente se 1450, ngokunempumelelo iyenza ingabinamsebenzi ukukhusela amalungelo angundoqo nxamnye nesenzo sikarhulumente. Esi sigqibo sashiya i-ATS Processom Clausce njengesi enkulu yokudibanisa iBhin yamaLungelo nxamnye namatyala,--*a uphuhlisolwazi olunokudibana kamva nenkqubo efunekayo. Noko ke, kamashumi eminyaka iNkundla ingavumi ukusebenzisa inkqubo esetyenziswa ukubetha imimiselo yezoqoqosho.

I Lochner iXesha kunye neNdlela ePhambili yeMbali

Isahluko esiphikisa kakhulu kwimbali yenkqubela-phambili yexeshana yenjongo encinci yaqalisa ekuqaleni kwenkulungwane yamashumi amabini nge [FLT]]. [FLT] Lochner v. New York [[FLT]] [[10]] [1] [isigqibo. [[FLT:] [1] [1] [1] [1] [1] [iisigqibo] [[iiiNkqulu-4]] [[FLT]] [iNkqulolo] [[1]] [iiiindawo esezantsi [iindawo esezantsi] [iindawo esezantsi] [iindawo esezantsi] [indawo esezantsi] [iiiindlela esezantsi yolawulo loqoqoselo lwezoqoqosho, kuquka imithetho esezantsi yemithetho elawula abantwana, nemithetho epheleleyo yemithetho-mthetho] [igunya elininzi] [Foctive i-Foctive i-edus.[11] [ethe syst syst symp: [eart, ngoku

Ngaphandle kokulahlwa kwayo, i-Lochner ixesha likhupha isithunzi eside. Yafundisa iinkundla ezilandelayo ukuba zilumke ngokuwamkela amalungelo angamiselwanga, kodwa kwakhona yaseka isiseko semfundiso eyakuvuselelwa kwinkululeko engeyoyoyo kwezoqoqosho ("ingcamango yokuba uMsebenzi weNkqubo ka-Falaska) ukhusela amalungelo athile "esiseko" ngaphaya kwalawo adweliswe ngqo kwiMigaqo-siseko.

Ukuvuselelwa Kwale Mihla: Ukusuka Kwindawo Eyimfihlo Ukuya Kwizinto Zobuqu

Emva kwe-New Dec, inkqubo encinci efunekayo yokungaphumi nxaxheba kangangeminyaka emalunga namashumi amathathu. INkundla yasoloko ithobela imigwebo yemithetho kwimicimbi yezoqoqosho. Noko ke, amatyala amatsha abandakanya ukuzimela kobuqu nolwalamano olusenyongweni aqalisa ukuvela ngeminyaka yee-1960, iphefumlela ubomi obutsha kule mfundiso.

[[UMTL:0] Griswold v.Connecticut[[FT:1] (65): Ilungelo lokufihla imbilini

[[NTLT:0] Griswold v.Connecticut[FLT]], iNkundla yathatha umthetho weConnecticut owalwaphula umthetho wokusebenzisa ukuthintela ukukhawula, kwanazibi ezitshatileyo. UGauglas waphikisa ukuba uMgaqo-siseko wamalungelo uqulethe "umbras" kunye "neemancation" eziyila "indawo yemfihlo". Nangona iNkungaxhomekekanga ngokucacileyo kwinkqubo efunekayo yokuthintela ukubhalisa, kunye nenyelisa isigqibo sayo ngokusemthethweni. Ibhalwe ngaphandle kwelungelo eliqhelekileyo. I-Galth, Eyesithathu, eyesihlanu, neye-P55] [FLT][5] [FTLT] [5]

[[UMTL: 0] Roe v. Iphepha (1973): Ilungelo lokukhetha

. ROE v. [FLT]] yandisa ubuchule be [[FLT:]] Griswold[ ukuqhomfa. INkundla yabambelela ekubeni ilungelo lento eyimfihlo, elisuka kwinkqubo encinci, eliquka isigqibo somfazi sokuphelisa ukukhulelwa kwakhe. UJaji Harry Blackmun wadala isakhiwo esilungelelene kakhulu esilungeleleneyo nenkululeko yomfazi kwimpilo kamama kunye nobomi obunokwenzeka. [FLT:] [5] [iiiii-Rose ihlala ikho impikiswano yezopolitiki neyasemthethweni iyaqhubeka kule mini. Ikwaneeeeeeeeeeee projectal i-ediat projectivesting isting is is is is is proviciation eyathi yoncedo sokuqala, kodwa eyathi yathi yathi yathi yakha yathi yathi ithe yathi i

Lawrence v. Texas (2003): Ukukhupha ulwalamano olufanayo nolungokwasemgceni

Lawnce v. Texas[FLT]], iNkundla yalawula isigqibo sayo sangaphambili [[FLT:]] igxininisa ukuba inkululeko ekhuselwe yiMsebenziswano kaClaus iquka ilungelo labantu abadala lokubandakanyeka kwihambo yangasese, ii-comments ngaphandle kolawulo lukarhulumente.

Obergefell v. Hodges (2015): Umgangatho womtshato

. . . .[FTLT:2] mhlawumbi yeyona nkqubo ibalulekileyo yendlela efunekayo kwinkulungwane engamashumi amabini anesithathu. INkundla yagqiba ukuba izibini ezitshatileyo ezingoonozala zinelungelo elisisiseko lokutshata, zikhuselwe zombini yi-Sected Process Classiale neSikhuseli- Claus. Uluvo lukaMonite Kennedy luthi umtshato uluvo olungundoqo olusekelwe kwimbali nakumasiko, kwaye zisusa izibini ezifanayo eziseziko ezijongenezo zijonge isidima sazo ne-EXS. [FLT:]

Isakhiwo sesakhelo: Glucksberg vs. Casey[[FLT: 3] kunye noxinzelelo olungaphaya kwendlela yophando

Phezu kwayo nje le mithetho iphakamileyo, iNkundla Ephakamileyo ayizange isebenzise indlela enye engqinelanayo yokuchaza amalungelo asisiseko. Zimbini iindlela ezikhuphisanayo ziye zavela, zidala ukungavisisani okuqhubekayo ngemfundiso.

Uvavanyo Glucksberg: Uvavanyo olumxinwa nolwembali

[[NTLT:0] Jahington v. Glucksberg[FLT] [1997], iNkundla yayalela inkqubo efunekayo echaza ukuba ifuna ilungelo lokunceda ukuzibulala. IJaji enkulu uluvo oluthintelayo: ukuchaza uvavanyo olubalulekileyo, ukuchaza into engundoqo, inkululeko ethenjiweyo kufuneka "isekelwe ngokunzulu kwimbali nesithethe" kwaye "isizathu esithe ngqo senkululeko kwingcamango yokuzikhulula." [[FLT] IJajist William Rehnquistons" ifuna ukuvavanywa "intelekelelo yoluvo olubalulekileyo" kunye nemfuno lwembali echaziwe. Oku kuthethwa yimiqatha nemithetho esesikweni. [[FLT]

[[UMTL: 0] I-'Act'''' ne' unikezelo loMququzelelo' [[FLT: 3]

Ngokwahlukileyo, iimbono ezininzi kwi . I-Casey [[FLT]] (1992 kunye ]] ne[FLT]]]Lawnce v. Texas yamkela uluvo oluthe kratya lwenkululeko. ] ichaza intliziyo yenkululeko [] ichaza ngokudumileyo ukuba "ilungelo lokuchaza indlela ekhoyo, yentsingiselo yendalo, yendalo, nemfihlelo lobomi babantu, kunye nento eyimfihlelo engundoqo ekhuselayo engundoqo kuphela amalungelo okhetho olubalulekileyo kodwa olubalulekileyo, nophawu olubalulekileyo lobuqu, oluluchasanayo oluthe lwabiwo olulululukujongo luthe lwabiwo olululululuphawu olulululuphawu olulululuphawu luchaneyo.

Uxanduva oluphakathi kwezi migaqo emibini alukaphenduli. INkundla idla ngokukhetha indlela yokusebenzisa ngokusekelwe kumongo, nto leyo ekhokelela ekumangalelweni kokungaguquguquki. Abaphengululi abasemthethweni bayaqhubeka bephikisana ngesiseko esivumelana nentsingiselo yokuqala yeSicwangciso sikaClaus kunye nemigaqo yedemokhrasi.

Imibandela neMiba yeNkcubeko

Iisigqibo seNkundla Ephakamileyo yakutshanje, ukutshintsha kwabasebenzi bezomthetho, kunye nezithethe ezigqwethekileyo zentlalo, zifake le mfundiso phantsi kohlalutyo olunzulu.

Ukuqhomfa Emva Dobbs v. Jackson Amabhinqa 'Amaqela ezempilo'

NgoJuni 2022, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yakhupha isigqibo se-sizukisayo [FLT]] ```````.'' [FLT''' i-Dobts' v'. Jackson Women’s Health Organization[[FLT]], i-arever [[FLT], i-automs's ment's ments mentaltrount's ikholelwa ukuba umGaqo-siseko awugunyazi ekuphumeni isisu, kuba ilungelo lokuphuma komqala lalingalulo kuba "kugqibekanga ncam ekunene kwimbalini nesithethe sobukhokhoziweyo. Inkundla eninzi isebenzisa umbathotho lwesizwe [FT][10] kunye nokuvavanywa kwemiqatha yeminye indlela ephantsi komngeni.[10]

IJaji uClarence Thomas, kwisivumelwano sakhe u-Dobts, ngokucacileyo wacela iNkundla ukuba iphinde iqwalasele . Uluvo oluninzi, nakuba lungahambisani nayiphi na injongo yokuphazamisa ezo ziganeko, lunyanzelisa ukuba ukuqhomfa kubandakanya ubomi obunokwenzeka. Noko ke, ingqondo ye- i-Doct:6][FLT][FLT]]

LGBTQ+ Amalungelo kunye nekamva [[FLT: 0] Obergefell

Umtshato olinganayo uhlala usemthethweni kwilizwe lonke, kodwa [[FLT: 0] ama-Dobts alwayo akhuthaza abachasi ukuba bacel ’ umngeni ukuqiqa . Amaqela amaninzi asemthethweni abeke ityala elingokwasemthethweni elifuna ukuphelisa ukulingana komtshato, aphikisa ukuba ilungelo alisekelwenga kwimbali. [[FLT:], i-'FLT] i-screct [ i-'eyenzelwe ukunikezela ngesiseko somtshato ofanayo, kodwa ayiqhubeki kwicala elisekunene. Ukuba iNkugqibele kwixa elizayo iyasebenza [FLT] [FFLT]

Ngeli xesha, iNkundla iqhubekeka iqonda ezinye i-LGBTQ+ ukhuseleko oluphakathi kwemithetho kunye nemigaqo yomgaqo-siseko. [FLT]Bostock v. Clayton County[FLT]] [2020], iNkundla yaba neSihlomelo seSihlomelo se-OFURRR, somthetho weSiBHAWU-I sokwahlula umsebenzi osekelwe kwimbonakalo yesondo okanye kubuntu-mzimbhiyo. Isigqibo esi sixhomekeke kutoliko lwe-statoo, hayi kwinkqubo encinci efunekayo, ngoko ke ingaba ikwindawo eqinileyo. Noko ke, iimfazwe eziqhubekayo kumalungelo adluliselwe amalungelo empilo, ukufikelela kwi-canstcan, kunye nokuthabatha inxaxheba kwemidlalo.

Amalungelo Emipu Nohlaziyo Lwesibini

Intlanganiso ekhoyo idityaniswe neMfuno yesibini. [FLT]] idityaniswe ne-[FLT'.[FLT'[200] [2008] kunye [[FLT][FLT][FLT][5]] [MFLD [5]]. [[FLT]] isixeko seChicago [[[[FLT]][6][FLT][0]] [2010]], iNkuqaphele umntu ngamnye ilungelo lokugcina nokuthwala iimfazwe zempilo. [[FFFFFFT] [ev8] kunye nemigaqo ekhoyo yemithetho ekhoyo.] [iiiimposiso ye-FFUPF] ifuna ukusetyenziswa kwemithetho-MPF] [ifulse] [ifulv]

Amacebo okhuselo noomatshini bokukhusela

Impikiswano ephathelele inkqubo esisiseko esisiseko ityhila ukungavisisani okunzulu ngokutolika komgaqo - siseko, igunya lokugweba, nendlela inkululeko emele isetyenziswe ngayo.

Ubuntsundu Nokumangalelwa Kokulawula Ngokweejaji

Abahlalutyi boqobo baphikisa ngelithi inkqubo efunekayo yokuzithethelela ayihambi ngokwesini kuba ivumela abagwebi abangakhethwanga ukuba benze amalungelo angafumanekiyo kumbhalo woMgaqo-siseko okanye kukuqonda kwasekuqaleni. Ngokwembono, iJaji Antonin Scalia, umxhasi ophambili wobuGqirha bantlandlolo, waphikisa ukuba i-Utest Procesment Claus inguprocedrol kwaye ayigunyazi iinkundla ukuba zibethe imithetho yokungaphulwanga mthethweni. [[FLT:] [FLT] [FLT] izigqibo eziphambili, ngokwembono yedemokhrasifini] `abagwebi abagwebi abaphambili bomgamgamgamgamgamgamga, abagqibe imiba efana nokuqhomfa, kunye nokuphela kwenkathalo-yo, ngaphandle kokuba ilungiselelo lomthetho-mthetho-siseko womthetho-siseko libekwe esiphaka. [iiiFLT:] [FF:0]] [ikm] isigqibo esivunyiweyo. [ie.]

Imbono YomGaqo-siseko Ophilayo

Abameli benkqubo efunekayo yokukhusela i-"Gaqo-siseko""" imo ebanzi yomthetho"" yaye yathunyelwa ngenjongo ukuba ikhululwe ukuvumela izizukulwana zexesha elizayo zisebenzise iimeko ezintsha. IJaji William Brennan kunye nabanye abaxhasi be "umgaqo-siseko ophilayo" baphikisa ukuba inkululeko ifuna ukukhuselwa korhulumente naxa iiFramesters zingenakuyijonga kwangaphambili imbambano ethile. Babonisa ukuba kunokwenzeka kwiimeko ezifana Grislold kwaye [[FLT:] i-ogglev] kunye berge] ifuna ukukhuselwa korhulumente ngaphaya komgaqo-siseko oqhelekileyo wokulungisa imigaqo-siseko yentlalo. Phantsi koluvo oluqhelekileyo, phantsi koluvo oluphantsi koluvo olusezantsi lomthetho lomthetho-mthetho-mthetho-mthetho-mthetho-siseko.

Ityala lodanyazo: Ukuphepha [[FLT: 0] I-Lochner Umthandelo

Abanye abagxeki benkqubo ebanzi engokwasemthethweni abaqalanga ngokuyila kodwa abaxhasi ababoyika ukuphinda iimpazamo ze [[FLT: 0] Lochner isizukulwana. Baphikisa ngelithi inkundla zakha zaqalisa ukuchaza "amalungelo angokwesithethe" ngaphaya kombhalo wesiseko, bazibeka engozini yokubeka iziphumo zazo zexabiso, ngokunjalo [[FLT:] iKochner[ iNkundla] inyanzelela ityala le laissez-faires. Le ngxaki iye yakhokelela ezinye izazi ekukhuthazeni "inkqubo yedemokhrasi", indlela edumileyo ebizwa ngokubanziwa nguJohn Hart e[Foct:] ngokuphakalkt' kunye ne-Spectivesty [Flactal.Flactal] ithetha ngokuchasanayo kwimitelkn, kwaye ikhuthaza ukukhusela kwemiqatha yezo yezobupolitika.

Ikamva Lenkqubo Engagqibekanga

Uququzelo lwenkqubo encinci efunekayo ayiqinisekanga. Inkundla yangoku ePhakamileyo, enesi-6-3 esidla ngokudla ngoludala, iphawule uthandabuzeko malunga nokuqaphela amalungelo amatsha angasetyenziswanga kwaye iye yabuza ukuqiqa okungasemva kwezininzi ezikhoyo. Noko ke, iNkundla ayikawiswanga [[FLT:]] Griswrick[[[FLT: 1], [[FLT:]]] LAWREnce, okanye [[FLT:]] OFLT]berge wafe, kwaye ezinye izigwebo zisenokungafuni ukucaphula imizekelo eyamkelekileyo.

Kwangaxeshanye, iinkundla zelizwe kunye nezindlu zowiso-mthetho zisebenza ngokukhulayo ekukhuseleni amalungelo angenakuphinda aqinisekiswe ngumGaqo-siseko wesizwe. Amanye amazwe aye afaka ilungelo lokuqhomfa, umtshato ongokwakwasemgaqweni, kunye nezinye inkululeko kwimithetho-siseko okanye imimiselo yawo. Lo msebenzi wemigangatho yesizwe ubonisa ukutshintsha okubanzi: njengoko ijaji yejaji yesizwe ithintelwa ngakumbi, iimfazwe phezu kwamalungelo asisiseko zinokufudukela kwiinkundla zikarhulumente nakumanyathelo okukhusela ibhola. Isiphumo sinokuba sisenzo sokhuseleko esisiqendundundumiso esahluka ngokubanzi ngemithetho.

Inkqubo esisiseko esisiseko ingummandla obalulekileyo wokufundela abaphengululi bomthetho, oogqirha, kunye nabemi. Imbali yayo ibonisa isithembiso kunye nobungozi bokhuseleko lomthetho lwamalungelo angamiselwanga. Njengoko amaxabiso entlalo eqhubeka eguquka, ingxoxo yokuba umGaqo-siseko ukhusela isiqu sobuqu (yekuba kunjalo, ukuba ungawuchaza njani loo ngqukuva---"izakuqhubeka. Ukuqonda isiseko semfundiso yangaphambili nesangoku kubalulekile ekubandakanyeni kwikamva lomthetho wemithetho-siseko waseMelika.

Ukufunda okungakumbi, jonga iimbono ezipheleleyo ku [FLT] Jahington v. Glucksberg kunye [[FLT:][FLT]]]]. Inkangeleko [[FLT][FLT:][FLT][FLT:][FLT][11], ebonisa iindlela ezididanayo zolwazi.[12], ukuthelekelela iindlela ezimbini ezididanisayo.[FLT][12] [FLT] [FLT]