Isifungo somongameli sesikhundla asiyonto nje esenziwa ngesandla esiphezulu. Lixesha elinye elibalulekileyo xa umphathi oyintloko ozayo ezibophelela ngokusemthethweni kumGaqo-siseko, ephawula ukudluliselwa koxolo kwamandla axhasa ulawulo-siseko lwaseMerika. Kodwa ngaphantsi kwephepha likho ingxubusho enzulu engokwasemthethweni nengokomGaqo-siseko. Ukusuka kumazwi achanileyo esifungo esichaphazela iziphumo zokungaqondani, ezi mpikiswano zichaphazela imibuzo esisiseko engolawulo lomongameli, ukuthembeka komgaqo-siseko, kunye nohlobo lomthetho-mthetho. Eli nqaku lihlola ingxubuliso engundoqo neyomthetho ejikeleze isifungo somongameli, ilandela imvelaphi yayo, ukuvavanya imingeni ebalaseleyo, nokuqwalasela ukusetyenziswa kwayo okuhlala kulawulo lwaseMelika.

Imvelaphi Yembali Yomongameli

Abaququzeli bomGaqo-siseko abazange baquke isifungo sobumongameli njengento ethethwa emva. Ukusifaka kwi- Article II, Icandelo 1, Clause 8, ngabom basixhasa isifungo njengemfuneko yomgaqo-siseko kunokuba ibe sisithethe nje. Amagama angaphambili aso. [[FLT:]]" ndifunga ngokunzulu (okanye ndiqinisekisa) ukuba ndiza kuphumeza ngokuthembeka i-Ofisi yoMongameli wase-United States, kwaye ndiza kubonakalisa i-oyena Mninimandla am, bakhusela, bakhusela kwaye bakhusela uMgaqo-siseko weUnited States"[FLT][3:] [injongo yokuzichaza ngokuphandle. [okanye izicwangciso zokuziko zobugcijiko, njengentsikelelo yobuthixo, ngenxa yokuba bajolise i-Riphabliki yelizwe, i-Riphabliki-omG.

IsiHlaliso sama-20, esamkelwe ngo-1933, sasusa umhla wokunikezelwa kwegama ukususela ngoMatshi 4 ukuya kuJanuwari 20, kodwa sagcina umbhalo wesifungo ungatshintshi. Isiphumo sokulungisa isifungo sasingumthetho, asinguwo umgaqo: yacacisa ukuba isifungo kufuneka sithatyathwe ngomhla omtsha, kodwa asizange siguqule amagama ngokwawo. Noko ke, ukulungiswa kwanika iBhunga amandla okumisela ukumiselwa kolandelelwano lomongameli ukuba umongameli-omatshini uyafa okanye angakwazi ukufikelela kwimo-yo, nto leyo eyathi ngandlela iphakamise imibuzo malunga noko kukuthi "ukwenziwa" phantsi kwesifungo.

Okubangel ’ umdla kukuba, iingxoxo zabafaki-falm zityhila ukuba bagqala isifungo njengesixhobo esisemthethweni, hayi isifungo sonqulo. Indlela yokuba "sibe siqinile" kunoku "sifungo" bahlalisa amaQuaker nabanye abangafuniyo ukufunga kwizizathu zonqulo. Olu khetho luye lwasetyenziswa ngoomongameli abaliqela, kuquka uFranklin Pierce noHerbert Hoover, abakhetha ukungqinela. Kamva iNkundla ePhakamileyo yaxhasa ukungqinelana komgaqo-siseko wezifungo kwezinye iimeko, iqinisekisa umgaqo wokuba isifungo sisenzo soluntu.

Umahluko wombhalo nempikiswano "Yokuthembeka"

Enye yeengxoxo ezizingisileyo zomthetho ezichaphazelana nomthetho ukuba umongameli kufuneka aphinde isifungo siphindeke. UmGaqo-siseko awusichazi isohlwayo sotshintsho oluncinci, kwaye imbali ibonisa ukuba uphambuko luye lwenzeka ngobuninzi obumangalisayo. Umzekelo, uFranklinlin D. Roosevelt, ngexesha lokunikezelwa kwakhe kwesithathu ngo1941, wasebenzisa kakubi ibinzana elithi "ukhuseleko, khusela kwaye ukhusele" njengoko "gcina, ukhusele kwaye ukhusele," ngoko wazilungisa. Ngolo mzekelo, uMongameli Obama ngo-2009 wakhubeka ngesifungo esikhoyo ngeSigqeba uRoberts, nto leyo ikhokelela ekubeni ibinzana elinqabileyo ligqalwe ngokusemthethweni ngomhla olandelayo. Nangona ukucel ’ ukucelw'icingela kwesibini kwakujongwe ngokusemthethweni, abanye abaphengululi baphikisa ukuguqule ulawulo lwe-Ognotekian de kulungiswe imposiso esisemthethweni.

Ucelomngeni Lokwaleka Kwemivukelo YeTrump

Ingxoxo ephezulu yepropati kwinkumbulo yakutshanje yenzeka ngexesha lokumiselwa kukaMongameli Donald Trump ka-2017. Njengoko wayecaphula isifungo ecaleni koMasipala omkhulu uJohn Roberts, Trump walishiya igama elithi ngokuthembeka" ukusuka kwibinzana elithi "enyanileyo uphumeza iOfisi". URoberts wayenenjongo yokukhokela nge "I, Donald John Trump, wenza isifungo sokuba ndiza kuphumeza ngokuthembeka i-Ofisi yoMongameli we-United States," kodwa uTrump wafaka i-pring yakhe siqu, kwaye ushicilelo lokugqibela lubonisa ukuba wathi "IDonald. Jrump, ucekadentiare, uzakuyiphumeza i-Ofini ye-United States States."

Abaphengululi abasemthethweni bahlukene kakhulu kwintsingiselo. Abanye baphikisa ngelithi ukungabikho "ngokuthembekileyo" kwakuyinto nje yobugcisa yokubophelela, efana ne-komam, kwaye akuzange kukuchaphazele ukufaneleka okusemthethweni kwesifungo. Abanye, noko ke, babonisa ukuyiqonda ngokwembali ukuba isifungo sisenzo esinye, esidibeneyo; ukushiya isitshixo esingundoqo esichaza umsebenzi wesikhundla, umgaqo ongenanto, ukuphikisa yonke intlanganiso. Ityala labekwa ngumthetho othe ngqo ngabalawuli abambalwa, kuquka ijaji yelizwe elirhoxileyo, ukufuna ugwebo lokususa isifungo esiphoxekileyo esilulazayo esithe salulaza umgangatho we-de. Ityala lalahlwa ngenxa yokungameki, kunye nomthetho wenkundla yokuba ityala lingenayo ngokomgaqo ofanelekileyo, ityala elingekho siseko soburhulumente – ityala elishicinelo olushiyekileyo phantsi komthetho. Ukuba impikiswano ephambili isenokubonakaliswa ngokuqhubekayo ukuba ityala.

Ngapha kweTrump, abanye oomongameli bongezelele amagama abo siqu. UGeorge Washington wongeza ngokudumileyo "Ngapha koko ndincede uThixo" emva kwesifungo sakhe sokuqala, ibinzana eliye lasetyenziswa ngabalawuli abaninzi abalandelayo kodwa aliyonxalenye yemibhalo esemthethweni. Amanye amatyala afuna "Undincede uThixo" kwizifungo zabo, kodwa imfuneko yesizwe ayikathethi nto kulo mbandela. Ulwandiso lwebinzana lonqulo luye lwacelwwa njengokwaphulwa kwe-Istament Clause, kodwa iinkundla ziye zasoloko zikholelwa ukuba eso senzo singumthetho kwaye asilufaki uvavanyo lonqulo. Noko ke, uqheliselo luyaqhubeka luvuselela ingxubukiso ngokwahlulwano lwecawa nemeko yecawa.

Imibuzo yomGaqo-siseko nokuthula kwejaji

Iinkundla zikarhulumente ziluphephe kakhulu ulawulo olusemthethweni oluncinci lwesifungo sobungameli. Umbuzo ongundoqo ngulo: ukuba umongameli usenza isifungo kodwa kamva ufunyaniswe ukuba ubuthathaka (nokuba kungenxa yokungalungisi, ukusilela ukusithabatha konke, okanye ukuguqula ngesiquphe), ngaba eso siphazamiso siyenza ibe buthathaka inkqubo yobumongameli?

INkundla ePhakamileyo ayikhange ithethe ngqo ngalo mbandela. Kwityala uMarbury v. Madison, iJaji enkulu uMarshall yaphawula ukuba isifungo sibopha amagosa kawonke-wonke ukuba axhase umGaqo-siseko, kodwa elo tyala lalikukodwa ngokuhlola okuyintloko, kungekhona ngokusemthethweni kobumongameli. Amatyala abandakanya izifungo zikarhulumente, ezifana ne [[[FLT:]] Torcaso v. Watkins [1961], elindele ukuba kuvavanywe unqulo lweofisi yoLuhlulo lokuqala, kodwa awaphindangathethi kuthethwa ngamazwi achanileyo esifungo. Inkundla yale iyi-BMPURD [12].[5]

Isithintelo esingundoqo semfundiso kwingqwalasela yobulungisa yimfundiso yezopolitiko. Phantsi kwale mfundiso, iinkundla ziyala ukugqiba ngemibandela ebekwe ngokwemigaqo-siseko kwelinye isebe okanye engenayo imigaqo elawulwa ngokusemthethweni. Umbuzo wokuba umongameli uye wasithatha ngokufanelekileyo isifungo unokubonwa njengomcimbi weBhunga lokwahlula xa ithetha ukuba amavoti anyuliweyo afanele afakwe kwaye iqinisekisa ukuba umongameli ungumgwebi ofanelekileyo, okanye umbandela wezobupolitika oshiyelwe kumasebe ezobupolitika. Oku kwakuyisizathu esikwetyala likaTrump: inkundla yesithilithi ayithathi ncam i-Crefs, kwaye ingqina ukuba i-D.C. ujikeleza uyavuma, egatya ukugqelela ekujongeni kwelothoba elijongeni kwezobupolitika.

Kodwa ukuba akukho sifungo sishiya inyani ishiya ingundo eyingozi. Khawucinge nje ukuba umongameli akavumi ukuthabatha isifungo, mhlawumbi njengokuqhankqalaza. UmGaqo-siseko ufuna isifungo phambi komongameli "ukuya kungena ekuphumezweni kwe-Ofisi yakhe" ukuba akukho sifungo sithatyathwayo, umongameli ongumxhakathisi usebenza phantsi koMphetho-mva-mvakalo wama-20 kodwa kuthekani ukuba lo mongameli akavumi? Ukulandelela kwakhe kusenokuba yingxaki esemthethweni. Ukungabikho kokhokelo lwejajingathanga kuthetha ukuba ukuthembeka kwesifungo kuxhomekeke kakhulu ekugqityweni kwezopolitiko nasekunyangweni kwabantu bonke, hayi ekunyanzelweni okusemthethweni.

Ibhotwe Nomvuzo Womongameli

Indima yesifungo sokulandelana yacaciswa yiMpanziswa-Mpanzi-mhlaba wama-25, eyaseka iinkqubo zokukhubazeka komongameli kunye nezithuba. Phantsi kweCandelo 1, isekela lomongameli liba ngumongameli ukuba umongameli ufile, uyarhoxa, okanye uyasuswa. Kodwa iCandelo 2 livumela umongameli ukuba anikezele umongameli ukuba aphinde alawule umongameli ukuba iofisi ayihambanga, kwaye ukuba umongameli makaqinisekiswe ngamagumbi omabini eBhunga. Okubalulekileyo, xa umongameli onyukela kumongameli (* njengoko kwenzeka noGerald Ford) ngo-1997an kufuneka athathe isifungo somongameli ngaphambi kokuba enze amagunya eofisi. Ukungaphumeleli ukwenza oko kungenamthetho: umongameli uya kuba ngumongameli, kodwa ungayi kuba ngumongameli, kodwa abe engena igunya lokusebenza njengomongameli.

Oku kunyusa umahluko ocacileyo wasemthethweni. Ukuba umongameli ufungiswe ngesifungo esinesiphene, kwaye kamva okokuba isiphene sifunyanisiwe, kuthetha okokuba yonke inyathelo elithatyathwa ngumongameli/ iquka imiyalelo yegunya eliphetheyo, ukumiswa, kunye nokuxolelwa (i-"i-"irfleases"? Abaphengululi abasemthethweni badla ngokuphikisa ukuba [[] i-'i-'idio'imfundiso izakukhusela ukufezeka kwezenzo zangaphambili, kodwa i-jure jul [[FLT]] [[FLT]]] unegunya elisebenzayo [[FT] [isihloko somthetho]] [ingasetyenziswa kakhulu] imfundiso esetyenziswa kumagosa abonakala esemthethweni ukuba anegunya, ngokokuba negunya, ngokokuba kufunyaniswe, ngokokuba kusetyenziswa kwimfundiso esetyenziswayo, ngoko kusetyenziswa igosaziwayo, ngoko kusetyenziswa igosahlulo, kwaye, kusetyenziswa ngokusetyenziswayo.

Omnye umyilo olandelelanayo ubandakanya "Isenzo sikaThixo" ukuvumelana. Kuthekani ukuba umongameli-wonga-mthetho ufa ngaphambi kokuba enze isifungo? IsiHlaliso sama-20 sinikela ngokucacileyo ukuba isekela lomongameli-wonga libe ngumongameli. Kodwa kuthekani ukuba umongameli-wodwa wenzakala kwaye akakwazi ukwenza isifungo ngoMhla wokuQalisa? Isifungo esiphendu sidiza izifungo ezicace ngakumbi: sithi "Ukuba uMongameli onyuliweyo uza kusilela ukufaneleka," ngoko umxhasi womongameli-mkhethi usebenza njengomongameli de ude ube umongameli-ogqeqedisileyo" mhlawumbi siquka ukungathathi sifungo, kodwa isifungo asizange sicaciswe. Ngoko ke, isifungo singumatshini esiphambili esingumongameli "upty", ukwenzela ukuba umgangatho "upty".

Imibandela Engokwasemthethweni Ebanzi: Inkohliso Neminqimbo Yobuxoki

Isifungo somongameli asisosifungo nje sesithethe; sisenzo esisemthethweni esinokuthwala iziphumo ukuba siyaphulwa. Icandelo II, Icandelo 4 lilungiselela ukutyunjwa nokususwa komongameli "ngokunganyaniseki, ukunyotywa okanye ezinye izifungo eziphakamileyo kunye nezinyuko". Ukwaphula eso sifungo ngabom (ngokomzekelo), ukwenza isifungo ngenjongo yokungawukhathaleli umGaqo-siseko //ukungavumelani nomthetho). Ukungaququki kukaMongameli uAndrew Johnson kwakuquka izifungo ezinxulumene nokungasigqibi isikhundla sakhe, nangona ezo zityholo zazingeyo ezingundoqo ekumgwebeni. Kwixesha langoku, abanye abahlalutyi bezomthetho baye baphikisa ukuba umongameli ozenza ngokungekho mthethweni ngokwemithetho, njengomthetho oziphethe umthetho, oziphetheyo, oziphikisayo kwaye ongathobekiyo.

Ukongezelela, isifungo siye sasetyenziswa kwiingxoxo eziphathelele ukuthintelwa kobupolisa. Ukuba umongameli uthi akakwazi ukuthintelwa ngokupheleleyo kwizenzo zolwaphulo-mthetho, abagxeki baphikisa ngelithi ukuthintelwa okunjalo kuya kusenza sibe nentsingiselo isifungo kuba umongameli akasayi kuphendula namnye. ISifungo sikaNixon ne-Clinton sabonisa ukubhambathiswa kwesifungo njengomgangatho wehambo. KwiKomiti yeBhunga yeClinton, kwiNdrouary Judiary iphikisa ngelithi umongameli uphule isifungo sakhe ngokuxoka phantsi kwesivumelwano sobupolisa, nto leyo, bathi, bathe, balujongela phantsi isifungo esingcwele. Indlu yetyala, kodwa igxininisa ukuxinzelo phakathi kwesifungo njengesivumelwano sobuqu nemiqathango yomthetho.

Kukwabalulekile ukuphawula ukuba kukho imithetho karhulumente ephazamisana neentetho zobuxoki kunye ne-perjury/18 U.S.C. 76 1621 kunye 76 1001 . kodwa akucacanga ukuba le mithetho iyasebenza kusifungo somongameli. Isifungo asiyontetho yesifungo esenziwe kwigosa eliphambili; siyimfuneko esemthethweni. Inkundla ePhakamileyo ibambelele ekubeni isifungo seofisi asilolungelo langasese lezenzo zabemi lokumangalela umongameli ukunyuselwa kwesifungo (bona ] i-Clinton v. IsiXhosam seNew York, 1998, ichaza imibandela emileyo). Ngoko ke, ukubhalisa kwesifungo akukwenziwa kwezobupolitika kuphela, kwaye ekugqibeleni, ibhokisi yebholo.

Ioath Njengomfuziselo womGaqo-siseko

Ngaphezu kokunyanzeliswa okusemthethweni, isifungo sisebenza umsebenzi obalulekileyo womfuziselo. Isenzo sokuphakamisa isandla sikabani nokuphindaphinda amazwi siqinisekisa ekuhleni isivumelwano sobuntlalo-ntle: igunya lomongameli liphuma kumGaqo-siseko, kwaye umongameli uyavuma ukubotshwa ngemiqathango yakhe. Obu bunzima bomfuziselo bubaluleke ngakumbi ngexesha lengxaki yemithetho-siseko okanye xa igunya lonyulo likhuphiswano. Umzekelo, kunyaka we-1876 ukhuphisana nonyulo, uRutherford B. Hayer wathabatha isifungo kumsitho wabucala ngoMatshi 3, 1877, ngaphambi kokunikezelwa kwaso esithe ngqo ngoMatshi 5, ngenxa yokuba impikiswano yonyulo ithelo yayingagqitywa ngokupheleleyo. Isifungo sangasemthethweni sasinikwe igunya lokusebenza njengomongameli, ukubonisa ukuba olufuziselweyo aluqhube oko kuyimfuneko komthetho kodwa luyixhasa.

Abanye abaphengululi baphikisa ngokuthi isifungo sibekwe njengesixhobo esisemthethweni. Babonisa ukuba oomongameli baye bathabatha isifungo baza babandakanyeka kwihambo engamiselwanga (umz., Lincoln ukunqumamisa i-habeas corpus, inkundla ye-FDR, ulungelo lweNixon's Watergate-up). Isifungo asizange sithintele ezi zenzo kuba singenawo amandla okuzibophelela ngokwazimeleyo. Kodwa kwimeko nganye, ukudityaniswa kwesifungo kwaba yindawo yokulwa kwempikiswano kwaye ekugqibeleni, uvavanyo lwamandla olawulo. Ngalookna, amandla nyani esifungo anokuba ngawasepolitiki nangokwesithethe, hayi ngokwezomthetho.

Isifungo sikwasebenza njengesithethe sobunewunewu, siphawula ukuguqulwa ukusuka kubemi bobucala ukuya kumphathi-mikhosi. Ngenxa yokuba isifungo sifuneka phambi kokuba umongameli aphumeze i-ofisi, sidala umthetho womgca oqaqambileyo: phambi kwesifungo, umongameli-ophakathi-so akanalo igunya elilawulayo; emva kwaso, banegunya elipheleleyo. Olu mgangatho wesibini ubaluleke kakhulu ekudluliseni amandla ngocwangco. Kwanokuba kucengcethelwe kakubi, logama nje kuvunywa ngamaqela, ungenza lo msebenzi wokutshintsha, njengoko kuboniswe ngu-Grentshire-uni.

Imbono Ethelekisayo: Iimbono Ezingaqondakaliyo Ehlabathini Lonke

Ukuxabisa ukuhluka kwesifungo somongameli wase-U.S. kuyanceda ukukhangela kwezinye iintlanga. UBukumkani bomZwelo mnye abunawo umgaqo-siseko obhaliweyo, nangona isifungo sokumkani sokuthweswa isitroli singumsitho wonqulo. Umphathi-nkulu akanyanzelekanga ukuba enze isifungo somgaqo-siseko; kunoko, unyulwa ngukumkani kwaye umele enze isifungo sokunyaniseka kwiBhunga. Umahluko onjalo ubonakalisa ukuzinikela kweMerika kumgaqo-siseko obhaliweyo njengomthombo ophezulu womthetho.

Umongameli weFransi usenza isifungo phambi kweBhunga lomGaqo-siseko, ufunga ukuhlonela umGaqo-siseko nokukhusela uhlanga. Amagama angqalileyo achazwa ngumthetho, kwaye umsitho umiselwe kodwa awukho phantsi kovavanyo lomthetho. Ngokwahlukileyo koko, uMthetho osisiseko weJamani ufuna uMongameli noMphathi-mikhosi ukuba enze isifungo esiquka "Undincede uThixo" ngaphandle kokuba umphathi wesi sikhundla ukhethe ukuwushiya. Iinkundla zamaJamani zibambelele kwelokuba isifungo sibophelele kodwa asiyiyo imeko yokuthabatha isikhundla; ukwala ukusithatha isikhundla.

Ezi zithelekisa zibonisa ukuba nangona ulawulo-melo lunezifungo ezininzi, inguqulelo yaseMelika ibotshelelwe ngokukhethekileyo kumGaqo-siseko njengoxwebhu olusunguliweyo. Isifungo sase-U.S. asisiso isifungo kukumkani okanye kurhulumente kodwa kuMgaqo-siseko ngokwawo. Oku kubonisa i-ethos yemithetho-siseko yaseMerika, apho umthetho uphezulu kunaye nawuphi na umlawuli. Iingxoxo ezingokwenziwa kwesifungo nezingachaphazelekayo aziso, ezantsi, iingxoxo ezimalunga nedemokhrasi yomgaqo-siseko waseMelika.

Isiphelo: Intsingiselo Ehlala Ihleli Yokunyaniseka KomGaqo-siseko

Isifungo somongameli sisengumgaqo-nkqubo olula ngokukhohlisayo oqhubeka usenza impikiswano enzulu engokwasemthethweni nengokomGaqo-siseko. Kusukela kukhetho lwabo lwamafashoni lwamagama ukuya kwiimpikiswano zonikezelo zale mihla, isifungo sinyanzelisa ukuba sijongene nemibuzo engundoqo: Kuthetha ukuthini ukukhusela nokukhusela" umGaqo-siseko? Simele sihlonelwe njani isifungo ngokwaso? kwaye ngubani ogqibayo xa eso sifungo sophulwe? Iinkundla zishiye le mibuzo ingaphendulwangaphendulwanga, kwaye amasebe ezobupolitika ayaziphendula ngokufutshane nje kuphela ngemigaqo esisiseko nangenkqubo elandelelanayo. UmGaqo-siseko omele uhlonelwe ngokomthetho kwaye uchazwe ngokusemthethweni.

Njengoko i-United States iqhubeka iguquka, iingxaki ezintsha ziza kuvavanya indima yesifungo. Angasithatha na isifungo nge-electron? Ingaba umongameli ozakuba ngumphandu-mgaqo angala ukuthatha isifungo njengohlobo lokuqhayisa? Ingaba iKhomishini ingamisa umgangatho wokusebenza kwesifungo ngaphaya kwemfuneko yangoku yombhalo? Ezi meko, nangona kungenakwenzeka, zigxininisa imfuneko eqhubekayo yokucacisa. Yintoni ehlala isoloko ingubunzima bomfuziselo besifungo: ngumzuzu xa amandla edluliselwa ngoxolo kwaye umongameli omtsha emkela umGaqo-siseko njengomthetho ophakamileyo. Ukuqonda impikiswano engomthetho-siseko ejikeleze esilula esi senzo sobucala kunceda abemi balapho besazi ukuba baqonde i-flagg nobuchule bokuzinzisaseMelika.

[[UMTLL:0] Izalathiso ze-External:[[UMTL:1]

  • U.S.Gaqo-siseko, Inqaku II, Icandelo 1, Claus 8 – Ugcino-lwazi lohlanga
  • [[UMTL:0] Umbhalo weSigqibo soLawulo kunye nembali – .gov
  • Isifungo sokurhoxa kumatyala – NPR
  • Imizekelo engokomGaqo-siseko wesizwe [[FLT:] Iziko lomgaqo-siseko wesizwe
  • [[Unikezelo:0] kunye nesifungo seofisi – [[Umthetho:2] Inkonzo yophando lonikezelo-lwazi [