Isiseko Sembali Sohlalutyo Logwebo

Imfundiso yokuhlola ityala ayikhankanywa ngokucacileyo kumGaqo-siseko wase-U. noko ke, imvelaphi yayo ibuyela kwizithethe zomthetho zesiNgesi kunye nezenzo zamathanga. Iinkundla zamandulo zaseMerika ngamanye amaxesha zayikhupha imithetho yorhulumente eyayingqubana nemithetho-siseko karhulumente, kodwa amandla okubetha imimiselo karhulumente awazange avavanywe de kube yiRiphabliki yokuqala.

Ityala elibalulekileyo elaqinisa uhlolo lobulungisa kumgangatho wesizwe yayingu uMarbury v. Madison (1803). Linqunyulwe nguMphathi omkhulu John Marshall, ityala lisuka kwisiphithiphithi sezobupolitika sonyulo lomongameli wekhulu lekhulu le-1800. UWilliam Marbury, unyulo loMongameli John Adams, unobhala wephondo uJames Madison ngenxa yokusilela ukunikela ulawulo lwakhe njengobulungisa boxolo. Uluvo lukaMarshall waluphepha ngokunelisayo ungquzulwano nolawulo lwesebe eliphetheyo ngomthetho othi phantsi komthetho kaMarbuGawulayo wama-1789, uGaqonga ngokwawo ngokwawo, ngenxa yokunwenwa kwalo yiNkulawula kweNkundla ePhakade kweNkulwayo yonke iNku.

  • UmGaqo-siseko ngumthetho ophakamileyo welizwe, obophelela kuwo onke amasebe karhulumente.
  • Ijaji inegunya lokutolika umGaqo-siseko nokuvakalisa izenzo zeBhunga okanye ukungabi nanto kwegunya xa lingqubana nalo.
  • Amandla okuhlola amatyala yindlela engokwemvelo yokusebenza kweenkundla, abalulekile ukuze kugcinwe umgangatho ophakamileyo womgaqo - siseko.

Phambi kweMarbury, iinkundla ezininzi zelizwe zazisele ziqhelisele uhlolo lwezomthetho wesizwe. Umzekelo, Commonwealth v. Caton (1782], inkundla ephakamileyo yaseVirginia yachaza amandla okuphelisa imithetho. Kodwa isiqinisekiso seNkundla ePhakamileyo eMarbury sanika imfundiso amandla esizwe kwaye yaseka iqonga leenkulungwane ezimbini zesiseko se-jurisprudence.

IiNjongo kunye neeNkxaso

Ingcamango yokuba iinkundla zinokuphelisa imithetho engekho sikweni okanye engavumelaniyo nemithetho yabekwa phantsi kwamazwe yaqhutyelwa impikiswano kwiConvention yezomGaqo-siseko yowe-1787. UAlexander Hamilton waphikisa kwi u-Federalist No. ukuba ijaji iyakuba “lisebe eliyingozi” ngenxa yokuba“ alinampembelelo kusini na kwikrele okanye kwingxowa.” UHamilton wacinga ukuba iinkundla zingumgcini womGaqo-siseko, ekwangathethi ukuba“ apho ukuthanda kwendlu yowiso-mthetho, ivakaliswa ngemithetho yayo, imela ukuchasana nabantu, ivakaliswe kumthetho, abagwebi, kufuneka balawulwe ngabalawuli baphantsi kweyangaphambili." Oku kumbono awuzange uhambele uphendule. Akwane nomthetho owenziwe ngomthetho othenwa yi-Antifdiary.

Indlela Ingxubusho Yezeejaji Esebenza Ngayo

Uhlolo lwezomthetho asilogunya lokuzimela elisetyenziswa yinkundla nganye. Lisebenza kwiinkqubo eziqhelekileyo zokulingwa. Ityala kufuneka liziswe ngokufanelekileyo, ngokufanelekileyo kufuneka limiswe, imbambano kufuneka ibe mhlophe, kwaye kufuneka kubekho impikiswano yokwenene. IiNkundla zisebenzisa iindlela ezithile xa zihlola ubungcazelo bomgaqo-siseko wemithetho okanye wezenzo.

Imigangatho yempinda

Kuxhomekeka kuhlobo lomthetho okanye isenzo, iinkundla zisebenzisa uhlolisiso olwahlukeneyo:

  • Ratical Basis Beendment:[ Owona mlinganiselo ubekelwe ixesha elifanelekileyo. Umthetho uthelekelelwa umGaqo-siseko, kwaye umcebisi makabonise ukuba umthetho awunanto ifanelekileyo unxulumene nomdla ofanelekileyo kurhulumente osemthethweni. Oku kusebenza kumthetho wezoqoqosho nowentlalo.
  • Isininzi soMqokelelo: esisetyenziselwa ukuhlela okusekelwe kwi-snithe-se-sel-sethim. Umthetho kufuneka unxulumene ngokubhekiselele kwinzala karhulumente ebalulekileyo.
  • Scrity Scrutiny: Owona mlinganiselo unzima. Isebenzisa imithetho efaka umthwalo wamalungelo asisiseko (njengentetho ekhululekileyo okanye ukuvota) okanye amaqela asekelwe kuhlanga, unqulo, okanye imvelaphi yesizwe. Urhulumente kufuneka angqine umthetho usebenza njengomdla onyanzelisayo kwaye ulungiselwe ukufikelela wona.

Le milinganiselo ikhokela abagwebi ekuboneni ukuba umthetho uyawuphula na umGaqo-siseko. Awufezekanga, kodwa inika isiseko sokwenza izigqibo ngokusisigxina.

Inkqubo yokugwetywa komGaqo-siseko

Xa inkundla karhulumente ifumana ucelomngeni lomgaqo - siseko, le nkqubo iqalisa ngolu hlobo:

  1. [[UMTL:0] Ukujija kunye nePlathings: I-paltiff mayichaze umonakalo othile owenziwe ngumthetho okanye isenzo sikarhulumente esiphula ilungelo lomgaqo-siseko.
  2. [[NTL:0] Imfihlelo kunye nobungqina: Kwezinye iimeko, ubungqina obumalunga nenjongo okanye impembelelo yomthetho buqokelelwa. Kwiingxaki zobuso, inkundla ijonga umbhalo womthetho; njengoko kucelw'ingxaki, ihlola izibakala ezizodwa.
  3. [[UMTL: 0] Iingcebiso kunye nofutshaniso: Izivumelwano zingenisa iimpikiswano zomthetho ezicaphula umbhalo womgaqo-siseko, imizekelo, kunye nomongo wembali.
  4. [[UMTL:0] Impikiswano ephakathi: Abalawuli bachaza ityala labo phambi kwabagwebi, ababuza imibuzo efuna ukuqonda kunye nentsingiselo yecala ngalinye.
  5. [[UMTLL: 0] Uqikelelo kunye neSigqibo: Abagwebi bayadibana ukuxubusha ngetyala. Uluvo loninzi(okanye ubuninzi) luchaza ukuqiqa. Ukuqukumbela nokungavumelaniyo kwembono kunika ezinye iimbono.
  6. Isicwangciso: Ukuba umthetho ubethelwe, inkundla ivakalisa ukuba uphumile kwaye awunyanzelekanga. Kwezinye iimeko, inkundla ingakhupha umyalelo nxamnye nokunyanzeliswa okanye ukuhlaziywa komthetho ngolu hlaziyo “lwendlela yokuhlola.

Kubalulekile ukuphawula ukuba uhlolo lwezomthetho alupheleliselwanga kwiNkundla ePhakamileyo. Iinkundla ezisezantsi zephondo zisoloko zinikela uhlolo-hlolo lomGaqo-siseko, kwaye izigqibo zazo zimele zibhencwa. Zizisigqibo seNkundla Ephakamileyo kuphela esisisiphelo ngaphandle kokuba umGaqo-siseko ulungisiwe okanye kamva iNkundla iwulawula ngokwayo.

Izigqibo Ezibalaseleyo Ezachaphazela UMerika

Uhlolo lwejaji luye lwaba yinkqubo yokuguqula intlalo kunye nomthetho. Amanye amatyala aye andisa amalungelo omntu ngamnye, amanye aye afumana imiqathango emincinane kurhulumente, yaye ambalwa aye agxekwa ngokubanzi njengokufuna ukufikelela.

Isiseko somzekelo nga Ngaphaya kweMarbury

  • McCulloch v. Maryland (1819): INkundla yaxhasa ubugqeba beBhanki yesibini yeUnited States, imisela ukuba iBhunga libonise amandla angaphaya kwalawo adweliswe ngokucacileyo (ingxelo “efanelekileyo nefanelekileyo”). Ityala lakwagxininisa ubungangamsha bolawulo kumsebenzi worhulumente.
  • GEBBON v. Ogden (1824): Amandla eBhunga achazwa ngokubanzi okulawula urhwebo lwamazwe ngamazwe, ebeka isiseko segunya lolawulo lorhulumente kwizoqoqosho.
  • red Scott v. Sandford (1857): Ukusetyenziswa okuyingozi kokuqwalasela ityala. IJaji enkulu uRoger Taney yavakalisa ukuba amaMelika aseAfrika ayengengobemi kwaye iBhunga alikwazanga ukulwa nobukhoboka kwimimandla. Isigqibo satshayisa inkxwaleko yesizwe kwaye sapheliswa ngokunempumelelo yi-Reconsoletion Constemption.

Amalungelo Asekuhlaleni Nenkululeko

  • Brown v. Ibhodi yemfundo (1954): Ngokubodwa yabetha ikhethe lobuhlanga kwizikolo zikawonke-wonke, isebenzisa ngaphezulu "imfundiso ehlukeneyo kodwa elinganayo” ye Pnetic v. Ferguson [1896]). Ulawulo lwasebenzisa ubungqina benzululwazi yentlalo-ntle ukubonisa ukuba i-fracm iyakhanyela ukhuseleko olulinganayo.
  • Gideon v. Wainwright (1963): Iphakamile ukuba uHlaziyo lweSithandathu lufuna ukuba kubekho imithetho yokunika icebiso kubamangalelwa abangenamali yegqwetha. Oku kwayiguqula inkqubo yokugweba.
  • [[NTLA:0] Miranda v. Arizona (1966): Amapolisa afunekayo ukwazisa abakrokrele bamalungelo abo ukuba bangathuli kwaye baluleke. “Izilumkiso zeMiranda” ziye zaba yinto ephambili kwinkqubo yamapolisa.
  • Roe v. [773]): Wamkela ilungelo lomgaqo-siseko lokuqhomfa phantsi kweNkqubo ka-Claus we-145th Amendment. Ityala labangela iingxoxo eziqhubekayo zezobupolitika nezomthetho. (Note: Roe yawiswa phantsi kwegunya ngu Dobs v. Jackson’s Health Organization [ ngo-20222], ibuyisela umba kumazwe.)
  • Obergefell v. Hodges (2015): Ibhengeze ukuba umtshato osisini esinye ungundoqo phantsi koMphetho-weshumi elinesine, ifuna ukuba onke amazwe anikezele imvume yomtshato kwizibini ezingokwabelana ngesondo.

Ukwahlukana Kwamagunya Nomanyano

  • United States v. Nixon (1974): Ngokubodwa isaziso sikaMongameli Nixon sokuba nelungelo elipheleleyo elilawulayo, umnyanzelela ukuba akhuphe iikhasethi zeWatergate. Isigqibo saqinisekisa ukuba akukho mntu, nkqu nomongameli, ongaphezulu komthetho.
  • [[FLT: 0] Ukutshintsha nokusebenzisa iNkonzo yoNyaka yeNqambiso-mali v. Chanha (19983): Ukutyhala phantsi iwiso-mthetho iveto, iKhomishini yesixhobo esetyenziselwa ukurhoxisa izenzo zesebe eliphetheyo. INkundla yabambelela kwelokuba iveto yaphula i-bidamatilism kunye neemfuno ezifunekayo zeQumrhu I.
  • IFoderal Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius (2012): Wawugqala ugunyaziso lomntu ngamnye loMthetho wokunyamekela ingqwalaselo njengomthetho osemthethweni wokusebenzisa amandla orhafu kaBhunga, kodwa ulawulo olulinganiselweyo lweBhunga phantsi kweChwebias no-Maliclaus malunga nolwando lweMedicaid.

Ukugxekwa Neengxaki Zangexesha Elidluleyo

Uhlalutyo lwezeejaji lutsala ukugxekwa okuqhubekayo okusuka kwiindidi zezobupolitika. Ukuchaswa okungundoqo kunokubekwa ngokwamaqela amathathu: ukuphendula ngokwedemokhrasi, ukugweba, nokugunyazisa.

“ IBritton Yodidi Lwama - Afrika”

Kuqala echazwe ngumphengululi wezomthetho uAlexander Bickel, olu hlolo lwezomthetho luthi uluvo lwezigwebo luvumela abagwebi abangatyunjwanga ukuba babhukuqe imithetho ewiswe ngabameli abanyuliweyo ngokwedemokhrasi. Kutheni, kutheni amagqwetha asithoba anxibe iingubo kufuneka aphendule ngokuqukumbela kwimibuzo ephikisanayo ngemilinganiselo yokuziphatha nezobupolitika? Abaxhasi baphendula ngokuthi umGaqo-siseko ngokwawo uluxwebhu oluphambili oluhlaziyiweyo lupheliswe zizikhundla eziphezulu, kwaye iinkundla zikhusela amalungelo amancinane kwiinkanuko ezithe kratya. Sekunjalo, ingxabano ayikapheli.

Ukungaququzeli kwemithetho yezomthetho

Abagxeki basoloko betyhola iinkundla “ngesenzo somthetho-mthetho” xa bebetha imithetho ebonisa umnqweno othandwayo okanye xa bedala amalungelo amatsha omgaqo-siseko. Ngokwahlukileyo,“ ukunqanda umthetho” kuyanconywa xa iinkundla zithobela iindlu zowiso-mthetho/okanye zigweba xa zingaphumeleli ukukhusela amaqela angenazikhuseli. Amagama adla ngokusetyenziswa ngokuchasene. Okuninzi okungathathi cala kukubuza ukuba inkundla ithembekile kumbhalo osemthethweni, isakhiwo, kunye nomzekelo, okanye ukuba ibeka izicwangciso zayo siqu. Ityala elifana [[FLT:].[10] Lochner.[FLD:1] [iiiii.[1], elithi lihlaselwe ukusetyenziswa kwemithetho epheleleyo, lijongwe ngokubanziswa ngokuba ngumqobo, [FLD] [irst]

Impembelelo Yezobupolitika Neemfazwe Zokungxengxezela

Ngenxa yokuba abagwebi bemiselwe (abagwebi abangoorhulumente bobomi), inkqubo yokuqinisekisa iye yasetyenziswa kakhulu. Iimvavanyo zelithamsi elizizinzileyo kunye nokuhamba ngemijukujelwa ngezithuba ezithe zaqina, ingakumbi kwiNkundla ePhakamileyo. Ukungavumi kuka-2016 ukuqinisekisa uMerrick Garland kunye nesiqinisekiso esikhawulezileyo sika-Amy Coney Barrett ngowama-2020 kubonisa indlela amandla okuhlola isigwebo ajijwa ngayo ngeziphumo zonyulo. Abahlalutyisi bathi oku kulula ukukholo lukawonke-wonke kwiNkuhlulo lobuhlanga olungakhethi. Kodwa abanye baphawula ukuba uhlolo logwebo lwezomthetho lucelwe ngokungqalileyo ukuvavanya amasebe ezobupolitika, yaye umgangatho othile wempembelelo yezopolitiko kwimi ezigqibi uyagwetyelwa.

Ukuxhathisa nokuxhathisa

Kwanaxa iinkundla zithetha, isigwebo sazo asisoloko sithotyelwa. Imfundiso yokulawula kwetyala `````FLT'''''', ukuba ukutolika kweNkundla ePhakamileyo kudibanisa onke amasebe' ngokutsha kukhuphiswano kwiimeko ezahlukeneyo. Kuthiwa uMongameli Andrew Jackson uthe emva weWorcester v. [[[FULT:1]] [1832], “uJohn Marshall uye wenza isigqibo sakhe; ngoku makanyanzelele. Ngeminyaka yee-1950 kunye neyowe-1960, amanye amagunya akwalathiswa yimiyalelo. Ngoku kutsha, impikiswano equlekwa kwemithetho yemithetho yesizwe neyase-“ ingcamango ye-padcomplate" ivavanye imidalekiso yegunya lenkundla. Inkundla ngokwayo iyavuma ukuba “inyanze ukuzimisela kwayo kukwamvo lwayo, kwaye ingayiyo i-ethenjiwe .[2][2]

Ikamva Lempinda Yogwebo - zincwadi EMerika Eguqukayo

Kumashumi eminyaka azayo kuza kubakho iingxaki zokuhlola ityala.

Ubuxhakaxhaka kunye nemfihlo

Ukujonga kwamanani, ubugcisa bezentlalo, kunye nobuchule bokufakelwa kuphakamisa imibuzo malunga nokwalela koMphengululo wesi-5 ngokungekho ngqiqweni nokuxhuzula. INkundla ePhakamileyo sele iqalile ukuqhelanisa, njengaku Carpeenter v. United States[ [2018], eyayikholelwa ukuba urhulumente usoloko efuna isiqinisekiso sokufumana iingxelo zendawo ye-cellne. Amatyala azayo anokuthetha ngobuchule bukarhulumente bokusebenzisa imbonakalo yobuso, ubuchule bokumba we-data obusetyenziswa ziinkampani zabucala, kunye nobungcathulo lwe-algamenti.

Unyango Neengxaki Zobomi

Emva amaDobb, indlela esemthethweni yokuqhomfa iyaqhekeka. Iinkundla zelizwe ngoku zingachaza umgaqo-siseko wazo ukukhusela amalungelo okuzala, kwaye iinkundla zikarhulumente ziza kujongana nemibuzo ngokuhamba kwelinye ilizwe, ukuqhomfa kwamayeza, kunye nokunyanyekelwa kongxamiseko. Okwangoku, iAffordbable Care Act ingajongana neengxaki ezintsha, kwaye iingxoxo ezintsha zokuzibulalayo, ubunjineli bemfuno lwemfuno yemfuno yemfuno yemfuno, kunye nemiyalelo yempilo kawonke wonke ziza kuvavanyanisa imida yenkqubo efanelekileyo neyo elungele ukukhuselwa.

Okusesikweni Kwentlalo Nokungalingani Kwezakhiwo

Imibutho yentlalo enjengeBlack Live Matter ne # MeToo icele utshintsho kwisakhiwo. Iinkundla zingacelwa ukuba zifake izibhengezo ezithe ngqo zobuhlanga obulawulayo kwiinkqubo zepolishi, kwizindlu, nakwimfundo. UMthetho weSiko woMgaqo-siseko olinganayo woKhuselo lukaClaus noWokuLawula amalungelo uza kuhlala uhleli usezikhundleni ezisembindini. Ucelomngeni lokulwa nonyulo, imithetho yemimiselo yamatyala, kwaye imithetho yezemali yephulo iya kuqhubeka ibumba inkqubo yezobupolitika.

Ukutshatyalaliswa Kwehlabathi Lonke

Uhlolo lwezomthetho lwaseMelika lunxulumene ngokukhulayo nomthetho wezizwe ngezizwe kunye nemithetho yeenkundla zamanye amazwe. Ezinye izigwebi zicaphula imizekelo yamanye amazwe kwiimbono zazo (umz., kwi-Roper v. Simmons, eyathi yavala isigwebo sokufa kolutsha), ngelinye ixesha ezinye ziyalwalela ukuthengwa. Njengoko urhwebo lwehlabathi lonke, izivumelwano zamalungelo abantu, kunye nokunqamleza i-omdanga-mda ziza kukhula, inkundla ziya kulawula ingxabano phakathi kolawulo lwesizwe nemithetho yezizwe ngezizwe.

Isiphelo: Intsingiselo Ehlala Ihleli Yohlalutyo Olugwebayo

Uhlolo lwezeejaji alusiso isixhobo esigqibeleleyo okanye amandla angenasiphelo. Luyinkqubo yomgaqo-siseko efuna ulwahlulo oluqhubekayo. Ukufaneleka kwayo kuxhomekeke kumgangatho wokuqiqa komthetho, ukuthemba kukawonke-wonke kwiinkundla, nokuvuma kwamanye amasebe ukuthobela imithetho. Xa esebenza kakuhle, uhlolo lwezomthetho lukhusela inkululeko yomntu ngamnye, lugcina ukwahlulwa kwamagunya, kwaye luqinisekisa ukuba akukho mlawuli onokuthi agqithe imida yomgaqo-siseko. Xa entengantenga- , u-xptsh u-DScott okanye [[FLT:]K2]Kgwesa]. U United States[FLT] u-FLT] uyakwazi ukukhusela ulwahlulo, [194], nto leyo enokuthi ibangele ukuba iziphumo zesijapani se-intern-10]

Njengoko iUnited States ijongene neengxaki ezintsha, amandla eenkundla okuchaza umGaqo-siseko aya kuhlala ebalulekile, kwaye ikhuphisana ```indawo yokulawula kwedemokhrasi''. Ukuqonda uhlolo lwetyala kubalulekile kuye nabani na okhathalele umthetho nokulondolozwa kwamalungelo omGaqo-siseko.