Yiyiphi Inkqubo Efanelekileyo?

Imodeli yemithetho yelitye eliqinileyo eMelika, iqinisekisa ukuba urhulumente akanakuhlutha nawuphi na umntu ubomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla ngaphandle kwemigaqo elungileyo nemithetho esesikweni. Lo ngumthetho omnye kodwa yiseko oluthambileyo lwezikhuselo ezihambelana nomongo, ukuqinisekisa ukuba iziphumo zomthetho zisesikweni ngokusisiseko. Ingcamango ifakwe kwiSigqibo sesihlanu neseshumi elinesine soHlanu kwiSigqibo soMgamganiso weU.S., esithi ngokucacileyo sikwalela urhulumente ukuba angakhanyisi inkqubo efanelekileyo. Ezi mithetho zomthetho zimbibini zidala umaleko ombini wokhuseleko: ukuHlalisa okuHlahlela kurhulumente woMgalelo-siseko, ngoxa isiHlahlulo sesihlanu sidlulisela imfuneko efanayo kurhulumente kunye norhulumente wasekuhlaleni.

Inkqubo efanelekileyo yale mihla iqondwa ngeendidi ezimbini ezahlukileyo kodwa ezingenani: inkqubo efunekayo nefanelekileyo yokuzingela. Inkqubo efunekayo ibhekiselele kwinkqubo efunekayo kurhulumente how yomsebenzi karhulumente] amanyathelo, isaziso, ukuva, kunye nezibongozo ezimele ziqale nawaphi na amalungelo. Inkqubo ekufuneka, ngokuphikisana, iidilesi ze- zezenzo ze-oct [FLT]][FLT] ̬ umthamo wemithetho ngokwayo, ukhusela amalungelo athile angundoqo ekuphathweni ngurhulumente kungakhathaliseki ukuba zihambani na iinkqubo ezisetyenzisiweyo. Zombi amasebe ayimfuneko ukunyamekela ibutho apho amandla obuqu kunye nenkululeko yobuqu.

Imvelaphi Yembali Yenkqubo Efanele Ilandelwe

Umgaqo wenkqubo efunekayo unemvelaphi enzulu yembali efikelela emva kwiinkulungwane phambi kokusekwa kweMelika. Oyena uphambili udumileyo nguMagna Carta[FL:0] ka1215, onesahluko 39 esivakalise ukuba akukho mntu okhululekileyo onokuthi avalelwe entolongweni, okanye agxothwe i ̴ ngaphandle komgwebo osemthethweni woontanga bakhe okanye umthetho welizwe. ̵ elo binzana, “ umthetho welizwe, i” kamva wavela kwingcamango yenkqubo efanelekileyo. Abaphengululi bezomthetho njengoSir Edward Coke, bafaka ingcamango kumazwe azimeleyo, kwaye yafakwa kwimodelikini phambi kokuba i-Romati.

Abaququzeleli bamaxwebhu baseMerika batsala kakhulu kule sithethe. UJames Madison, owamisela uHlaziyo lweNguqulo lwesihlanu, obenzelwe ukuba asebenze njengendlela yokukhusela amakhoboka akhululweyo kwimithetho-mthetho exhatshazwayo njengendlela yokuphatha kakubi abalawuli. Emva kwemfazwe yamakhaya, iKonsole yokwakhela kwakhona yongeza iNkqutyana ye 14neth Amend Amend Amend, yandisa ukhuseleko olufunekayo kubo bonke abantu abakwigunya lezwe kwaye yalungiselela isixhobo esinamandla sokukhusela amakhoboka amatsha kwimithetho yolwaphulo-mthetho. Ilizwe eliPhakathayo lisebenza ngokuthe ngcembe njengeemeko zeNkukhosi [[FLT:] iHUrdo v.[FLT][FLT: [12] [18]] [184] [18]) kunye [FLT] kunye ne-ultsongsting presedgssionsting widell ye-Exfroupt profileans, uninzi lwenkulungwane yenkulungwane zeNupt.[12]

IsiHlomelo Sesihlanu

Iphakanyisiwe ngo1791, iSigqibo seNtlanganiso sesihlanu sithi: “ akukho mntu uza kuba yi… uhluthwe ubomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla, ngaphandle kwenkqubo efanelekileyo yomthetho. ̵ olu xwebhu lutolikwa ukuba lufune ukuba urhulumente wesizwe anike isaziso esisesikweni setyala, ithuba lokuvikitshwa phambi komenzi-wesigqibo ongenamkhethe, nethuba elibalulekileyo lokunikela ubungqina. Ekuhambeni kwexesha, isiHlamkelo sesihlanu sanyusa isiqu esityebileyo somthetho ngokuphathelele ukuzibeka ngokwaso, ingozi ephindwe kabini, kunye neendawo eziphakamileyo ezithi ziqinisele iinjongo zokukhusela abantu ngokwezenzo zoburhulumente. Umthetho ophakamileyo &817; isigqibo [ngendlela enyangweni:MMGene].[5] [4]

IsiHlomelo Seshumi Eline

Ngo1868; Icandelo 1 loMphetho-mva wemfazwe yamakhaya linika ukuba akukho mbuso uzakufumana i-̴ udele nawuphi na umntu wobomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla, ngaphandle kwenkqubo efunekayo yomthetho. – olu guqulo lwemithetho-siseko yaseMelika ngokwenza urhulumente aphendule urhulumente kumgangatho wesizwe wokusesikweni. Iinkcazelo zangaphambili zazimxinene, kodwa ngenkulungwane yama-20 iNkundla yasebenzisa iNkuhlaziyo ye 1450 ’ i-Clausss Proces phantse ukudibanisa phantse zonke iiBhiligi zamalungelo, kuquka inkululeko yokuthetha, ukushicilela, ukushicilela, ingqungquthela, ingqungquthela, kunye nesokunene ukuya kwisiluleko. Ityala [FLD][12]

Inkqubo eQhelekileyo

Inkqubo efunekayo igxininisa kubulungisa benkqubo isetyenziswa xa urhulumente efuna ukuhlutha umntu wobomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla. Ayiyaleli urhulumente ukuba athathe inyathelo; kunoko, ifuna ukuba urhulumente alandele iinkqubo ezithile ngaphambi kokwenza njalo. Inkundla ePhakamileyo yaseka uvavanyo oluthambileyo [[FLT:] ama-maws v. Elditridge ukugqiba ukuba yintoni efunekayo phantsi kwemeko enikiweyo. , amaqumt', amatyala alinganisayo: umdla wobuqu, iziphumo ezichaphaza phantsi kwemigaqo ekhohlakeleyo, kunye nentelekelelo yoorhulumente ekhoyo, #2]

Isiseko somgaqo-nkqubo wenkqubo yeprocedro quke:

  • [[FLT: 0] Imali. Abantu kufuneka bafumane isaziso esifike ngexesha kunye nesaneleyo salo naliphi na inyathelo likarhulumente elinokuchaphazela amalungelo abo. Oku kuthetha ukwaziwa ngezityholo, ubungqina, kunye neziphumo ezinokwenzeka.
  • I-Opportiny ezakuviwa. Abantu abachaphazelekayo kufuneka babe nethuba elinentsingiselo lokunikela icala labo lebali, "nokuba kungokuva, ukuthobela okubhaliweyo, okanye isiphumezi-miyalelo somlomo] phambi komenzi wesigqibo ongakhethi buso.
  • I-Impartial Tribunal. Umenzi-sigqibo makangabi nanxaxheba, kungekho nto ithenjiweyo yobuqu okanye yemali kwisiphumo. Oku kuqinisekisa ukuba inkqubo efunekayo ayingomthetho nje oqhelekileyo kodwa yindawo yokukhusela yokwenene.
  • [[UMTL:0] Ilungelo kwiSicelo noBufakazi. Kwimeko ezininzi, ingakumbi amatyala olwaphulo-mthetho, inkqubo efunekayo ifuna ufikelelo kumelo olusemthethweni kunye namandla okudibana namangqina achaseneyo ne-examine.
  • [[UMTL:0] Isigqibo esivunyiweyo. Ingcaciso ebhaliweyo okanye edluliselwa ngomlomo yesigqibo inceda ukuqinisekisa ukuba umenzi wesigqibo uqwalasela ubungqina kwaye ulandela umthetho.

Inkqubo efunekayo yenkcazelo isebenza kwimimiselo emininzi engaphaya kweemvavanyo zolwaphulo-mthetho: ukupheliswa kwentlalo-ntle, ingqeqesho yabafundi, ukurhoxiswa kwemiqathango yobugcisa, ukuva ityala lokufuduka, kunye nokugwetywa kweenkqubo zolwaphulo-mthetho zonke ezifuna iinkqubo ezifanelekileyo. Iinkqubo ezizizo zisenokuhluka, kodwa ukuzinikela okusisiseko ekufezekiseni okusesikweni kuhlala kuhleli.

Inkqubo elindelekileyo

Inkqubo engundoqo esetyenziswayo ikhusela amalungelo athile asisiseko ekungeneleni korhulumente, nokokuba urhulumente ulandela iinkqubo ezigqibeleleyo. Eli sebe lenkqubo efanelekileyo lithanda ukuphikisana kakhulu ngenxa yokuba limema iinkundla ukuba zivavanye okuqulethwe yimithetho, hayi nje iindlela ezisetyenziswayo ukunyanzelisa. Le mfundiso yavela ekupheleni kwenkulungwane ye-19% kumatyala afana Allgeyr v. Louisiana [1897] [1877] [[FLT]]] kunye [FL:2]] nolton V.[[FLT] umgangatho wesingenow[[[FLT:]] [[3]] [1] [1] [iindlela] elungele ukukhusela iprojectivesting] (iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiethenti]) (1920], indawo ephakathi kwenkulungwane zobuqu zobuqu zobuqu.[1920], apho ithelela i-omatizo zobuqu zobuqu zobuqu.[FLT]

Inkqubo encinci efunekayo yangoku ikhusela amalungelo angundoqo akwi “ asekelwe ngokunzulu kulo Mhlanga ’ imbali nesithethe i̵ kwaye ibalulekile kwinkululeko eyayalelwayo. INkundla ePhakamileyo iwamkele amalungelo asisiseko aliqela phantsi kwale mfundiso, kuquka:

  • Ilungelo lokutshata (umz., [[FLT: 0]] Loveng v. Virginia, 1967; Obergefell v. Hodges, 2015])
  • Ilungelo lokufumana ([[FLT: 0]Skenb v. Oklahoma, 1942])
  • Ilungelo lokuthintela ukukhawula ([[FLT: 0]Griswold v.Connecticut[[FL:1], 1965)
  • Ilungelo lokuqhomfa ([[FLT: 0] Roe v. , 1973, kunye i-Parents v. Casey, 1992, nangona Roe[ yalawula [[FLT:]]]] ibekwe phezu kwemithetho kwi []] Dobs v. Jackson Women ̱ Ulungiselelo lezempilo [FLT:], 20222]]
  • Ilungelo lokulathisa uqeqesho lwe-’ abantwana ([[FLT: 0] Pierce v.uSociety of Oodade, 1925)
  • Ilungelo lokuhamba ([[FLT: 0] Saenz v. Roe, 1999)

Xa umthetho uphazamisa inkqubo esisiseko esisiseko efunekayo, iinkundla zisebenzisa uhlalutyo lwecandelo, zifuna urhulumente ukubonisa ukuba umthetho usebenza inkxalabo yorhulumente enyanzelisayo kwaye ulungiselwe ngokunqamlezileyo ukufikelela loo mdla. Le ntambo iphezulu iqinisekisa ukuba eyona nkululeko ixabisekileyo yobuqu ayingachatshazelwanga ngokulula ziinkokeli ezinkulu zemithetho.

Ukubaluleka Kwendlela Yokufumana Uxolo

Inkqubo elindelekileyo asiyomfundiso yomthetho nje yobugcisa; yimbopheleleko yokuziphatha neyokwakha kumthetho. Ngaphandle kokhuseleko olufanelekileyo, abantu basengozini yokuvalelwa ngokungekho mthethweni, ukusohlwaywa ngokushwankathela, kunye nokuphangwa ngurhulumente. Le ngcamango isebenza kwimisebenzi emininzi ebalulekileyo:

  • Seck kuMandla e-Arbitrary. ngokufuna urhulumente athethelele izenzo zakhe ngenkqubo ezimiselweyo nangemida engaphantsi, inkqubo efunekayo ithintela ukuxinezeleka kwegunya elingathintelwanga.
  • [[FLT: 0] Ityala lobunyani kunye nokuThenjelwa. Imicimbi elungileyo inyusa ukuthemba uluntu kwinkqubo yomthetho. Xa abantu besazi ukuba iza kuviwa kwaye igwetywe ngokungakhethi buso, basengozini kakhulu ukwamkela iziphumo, kwanezo zingalunganga.
  • [[Ukhuseleko:0] Ukhuseleko lwamancinci. Inkqubo elindelekileyo ikhusela abantu ababuthathaka kunye namaqela kwimikhosi enzima. Iqinisekisa ukuba nabantu abangathandwayo bafumana amalungelo afanayo okulawula njengaye wonke umntu.
  • Ubuqhetseba kunye nobuGcisa. Ukhuseleko lweNkcubeko olufana nelungelo lokucebisa, lokufumana, nokuhlola ukunqamleza kunciphisa ubungozi bolwazi oluphosakeleyo, ukukhanyela okuphosakeleyo, nokungalungisi.
  • Ukuhlonela isidima somntu ngamnye. Umba ongundoqo, inkqubo efunekayo iyaqonda ukuba wonke umntu unelungelo lokuphathwa ngesidima nentlonelo ngurhulumente. Uxabiso lubalulekile kwibutho ledemokhrasi.

Imodeli

Inkqubo Yokusesikweni Yezaphuli - mthetho

Kwimiba yolwaphulo-mthetho, inkqubo efunekayo imisela iimfuno ezithe kratya kumagxesi omthetho kunye neenkundla. Olunye ukhuseleko oluphambili luquka ilungelo lokuvavanywa ngokukhawuleza nakuluntu, elimiselwe Gedeon v. Waingrid [1963], lolunye lwezolo oluthe kratya ekufumaneni unyawo. Olunye ukhuseleko oluphambili luquka ukubekwa phambili kwetyala elifanelekileyo nelifanelekileyo, ilungelo lokumelana namangqina, ukukhusela ekunyanzelweni nokunyanzelweni kwetyala ngokwakho (ukuzinyanzelela [[FLTLT:2]]]] [iMarda]]), kwaye imfuneko yokuba umvandedwa kuboniswe ngaphandle kokuthanda ukuthanda ukucinywa. Le mithetho yenzelwe ukukhusela iinkolelo ezingalunganga nokugcina ityala.

Inkqubela yamakhaya nolawulo

Inkqubela-nkqubo elindelekileyo idlulela kude lee kwiinkundla zolwaphulo-mthetho. Kumatyala amakhaya, amaqela anelungelo lokuqaphela ukumangalelwa, ithuba lokunikela ubungqina, nelungelo lokubhena. Amaqumrhu olawulo `njenge-Social Security Administration, i-Invironmental Protection Agency, kunye nenkundla elawulayo yesizwe (ikufuneka anike abantu abanokuthethwa kakuhle phambi kokuba abalahliwe iinzuzo, amalayisensi, okanye ezinye izinto ezintle zempahla. Umzekelo, [[FLT: 0]] Goldberg v. Kelly[FLT:] [1970]), iNkundla ePhakakhulu yeNkundla ibamba ukuba abamkeli bentlalo inelungelo lokuba bafumane inzuzo ecacileyo phambi kokuba bakhululwe. Ngokufanayo, abafundi abajongene nethuba lokugxothwa ekuhleni nokuvalwa phantsi kwesikolo. [FTB]

Ulwandiso

Umthetho wokurhoxa unika ulwahlulo oluntsonkothileyo lwendlela yokulungisa umhlaba. Imeko-bume ekhoyo ngokoqobo eUnited States idla ngokuba nelungelo lokususwa kweyokuhlaziywa kweMpanzi yeFind Complifictioṉ izikhuseli, intsingiselo yokuba kufuneka zifumane isaziso kunye nokuva kakuhle phambi kokugxothwa. Noko ke, umlinganiselo wezi zikhuseli ungahluka, ingakumbi kubantu abavalelwe kumda okanye abanokucinezelwa ukususwa okukhoyo. Amatyala eNkundla yakutshanje eSiphengululo seNkuhla njenge [FLT: 0] Jenlings v. Rodriguez[FLT:] [2014] [20.8])

Iingxaki Zexesha Elizayo

Phezu kwayo nje indima yayo yokuseka, inkqubo efunekayo ijamelana nezisongelo eziphawulekayo kwinkulungwane yama - 21.

Ukungalingani Kwenkqubo Nokufikelela Kokusesikweni

Idinga lenkqubo efunekayo lihlala lingenanjongo kubantu abaninzi abangakwaziyo ukufikelela imigaqo esemthethweni. Kumatyala angokwamakhaya. Ingakumbi ezo zibandakanya ukugxothwa kwenkundla yetyala, ukuqokelelwa kwamatyala, ukugcinwa kwabantwana, kunye nokufuduka (iiindividials (ii-pro] inguse] (ngaphandle kwegqwetha) (kungekho gqwetha) ngenxa yokuba abanazo izibonelelo zokuqesha icebo. Inkundla ePhakamileyo kwi [FLT] [FLT]] ibonise ukuba i-Lassiter v. Isebe leeNkonzo zeNtlanganiso [198] libambe ukuba akukho lungelo lokucebisa kwiimeko zamakhaya kuphela. Izigidi zishiye ukuqhuba iinkqubo ezintsonkothile. Izifundo zokulwa kweBlavidia kunye nee-Spistism zibonisa ukuba zifunyaniswe ngokungqongqo, kunye neemeko ezilinganayo ezilinganayo, ukuphatha ezilinganayo.

Ubuxhakaxhaka kunye nemfihlo

Umzekelo, ukusetyenziswa kwemithetho-manani yomngcipheko ekugwetyweni nasekuphenyeni izigqibo ezifanelekileyo zobugqhinga obuqhelekileyo. Ukuhlola urhulumente, ukukhaphela i-software yolwazi, ukuqikelelwa kwe-algorithi yobuso, kunye neenkqubo zokwenza izigqibo ezizenzekelayo zekhompyutha ezizenzekelayo zinokuhlupha abantu inkululeko okanye izinto ngaphandle kokuzihlola okunentsingiselo. Umzekelo, ukusetyenziswa kwe-algorimethm zobugrame ekugwebeni kunye nezigqibo zebhelebhu kusenokubangela ukucaphula ikhethelo olukhoyo lobuhlanga kunye nokukhaba ithuba lokucelwna i-e. Ngokufanayo, ukuqokelelwa kobungqina bemiciko-manani, kunye nokuhlola i-menyo ye-mfono-mfono, ukuphakamisa i-cellssss, ukusetyenziswa kwemigaqo yokusetyenziswa kwendlela yokusetyenziswa kwe-cell.

Ukhuseleko Lwesizwe Namandla eengxamiseko

Kwigama lokhuseleko lwesizwe, maxa wambi oorhulumente baye bayiphepha inkqubo efunekayo. Emva kohlaselo lwe-11 lukaSeptemba, i-U.S. erhanelwa ngabagrogrisi eGuantanamo Bay nakwezinye iindawo, bephikisa ukuba babephantsi kweenkundla zemikhosi kunokuba ibe ziinkundla zoburhulumente. INkundla ePhakamileyo yaziphindelela kwiimeko ezifana [ i-Rumsfeld [2004] [2004] [[FLT]] ne-Boumedie v. [2003] [iiiiiindlela], iqinisekisa ukuba utshaba lunenkqubo elungileyo yokuvavanyaza ityala phambi kokubambathiso. Kodwa uxinzelo oluthe kakhulu njengoko amagunya emeko olungxamise ingxamisekile, ingxhulumane, i-od transtive, i-'igno yokhuseleko loluntu phakathi nentente yoluntu.

Isiphelo

Imo-nkqubo ayiyonto ithethwayo esemthethweni; luzibopheleleko oluphilayo lokufumana idemokhrasi yaseMelika. Ukusuka kwiMagna Carta ukuya kwiNguqulo yeNhlanu neyeshumi elinesine, ukusuka kuMathews v. Elditrip[ ukuya [ku-] kuwelka ulawulo lwedemokhrasi. Hodges[], lo mgaqo uqalisile ukuhlangabezana neengxaki ezintsha ngoxa uhlala unyanise injongo yawo: ukuqinisekisa ukuba wonke umntu ufumana ithuba elifanelekileyo lokuviwa nokuba urhulumente usebenzisa amandla akhe ngaphakathi kwemiqatha. Njengoko abaqeqeshi, abafundi, nabemi, nokukhusela inkqubo efunekayo yokulondoloza inkululeko nenkululeko yesizwe. Umqondiso omele asebenze ngokuzinziswa kwe-ankile ne-ankile. Kodwa umele ahlale ekhonziswe yinkqubo yomthetho wonke onamandla.

ukuya kufunda ngokubhekele phaya, khangela [[FLT: 1] ICornell Information Institute ̱ inkcazo yendlela eyiyo yenkqubo, [ iprojekthi ye-Oyez kwiphepha leGidiyon v. Ukukhankanya [[FLT:] [[FLT]], kunye [[FLT:]] ACLU& #817; uhlalutyo lwezinto ezizintlukwano zobuhlanga kwinkqubo yokugweba [[FLT: 6,]].[FLT]