Table of Contents

Ukuqonda indlela iinkqubo zomthetho zikarhulumente ezisebenza ngayo kubalulekile kuye nabani na osenokufuna ukuya kwiinkundla, enoba lilungu letyala, ummi onikela ubungqina, okanye nje ummi onolwazi. Malunga nama-90 ekhulwini awo onke amatyala kwinkqubo yenkundla yase-U.S.

Isiseko Senkqubo Yomthetho KaRhulumente

EUnited States, urhulumente worhulumente kunye norhulumente ngamnye uneseti yemithetho yakhe kunye neenkqubo zenkundla zawo, neenkundla zorhulumente norhulumente ezahlukeneyo ngokwesakhiwo kunye nomahluko obalulekileyo phakathi kwejaji yesizwe neyaserhulumenteni kunye nomahluko phakathi kwamaphondo ahlukeneyo. Le nkqubo idibeneyo yokusesikweni ibonisa isakhiwo sorhulumente waseMerika, apho igunya labelana khona phakathi kwamagunya esizwe nawaseburhulumenteni.

Njengomthetho ophakamileyo welizwe, umGaqo-siseko wase-U.S. udala inkqubo karhulumente karhulumente olawulayo apho igunya labelana khona phakathi korhulumente worhulumente noorhulumente besizwe, norhulumente worhulumente ngamnye oneenkqubo zenkundla zabo. Ngoxa kukho ukufana kwindlela ezi sixokelelwano ezimi ngayo, urhulumente ngamnye uphuhlise indlela yakhe ekhethekileyo yokulawula okusesikweni kwimida yakhe.

IiNkundla zeRhulumente ziphikisana neNkundla yoLawulo: Ukuqonda Ityala

Enye yezona nkcukacha zibalulekileyo kwinkqubo yomthetho waseMerika kukuqonda ukuba yiyiphi inkqubo yenkundla elawula iindidi ezahlukeneyo zamatyala. Iinkundla zeli lizwe ngokuyintloko zisingatha amatyala abandakanya imithetho karhulumente, kuquka imicimbi yolwaphulo-mthetho, imicimbi yasekuhlaleni enjengezinto zomntu ngamnye ezonzakala, imicimbi yenkundla yentsapho, iprobaki yeemfuno nemicimbi yempahla, kunye nemicimbi yempahla yelifa, kunye neenkundla zikarhulumente zinegunya lokuphulaphula imicimbi yasekuhlaleni, enjengemibani nesongasayinwa.

Iinkundla zomanyano zigqiba amatyala anemiba yomthetho karhulumente kuphela, kuquka amalungelo omgaqo-siseko, iprojekthi, kunye namatyala orhulumente okanye phakathi kwabemi basemazweni amabini awahlukeneyo, kwaye le nkqubo yezogwebo ikwasingatha iimbambano ezinxulumene nezivumelwano, amatyala okuwa, kunye nomthetho wolawulo olumanyumnyezi. Noko ke, ulwahlulo phakathi kweenkundla zikarhulumente kunye norhulumente alunanto imbi. Iinkundla zeli lizwe zinokuva iindidi ezininzi zezimvo zomthetho karhulumente, kwaye kukho iimeko apho inkundla zikarhulumente zisebenzisa umthetho, kwaye iinkundla zikarhulumente ziyakwazi ukuphinda zihlole izigqibo zenkundla zikarhulumente ezinokungqubana nomthetho we-U.S.

Izakhiwo ezibucala zeenkundla zeLizwe

Ngokuqhelekileyo iqumrhu lenkundla yezonyuko leLizwe eliPhakamileyo liquka iNkundla ePhakamileyo yeLizwe njengenkundla yokugqibela, efana neNkundla Ephakamileyo yaseUnited States, ngaphantsi kweNkundla yeZibheno yeLizwe efana neeNkundla zezibheno zeUnited States kwinkqubo yorhulumente, yaye umgangatho osezantsi wenkundla uyakuba ziinkundla ezigwebayo ezilingana neeNkundla zeSithili zaseUnited States kwinkqubo yesizwe.

Kwisiqingatha sikarhulumente kunye nenkqubo yorhulumente, kukho izintlu ezibini, ezineethala, ezizakuba kwinkundla yesithathu kwimigangatho yeqela lenqanawa, ezidla ngokuchazwa njengenkundla ephakathi. Ukuqonda esi sakhiwo se-hiecharalical sibaluleke kakhulu ekuqondeni indlela amatyala ahamba ngayo kwinkqubo kwaye yiyiphi inkundla enegunya kwimicimbi eyahlukeneyo.

Iinkundla Zetyala: Apho Kuqala Khona Amatyala

Iinkundla zetyala zisisiseko senkqubo yokugweba yephondo kwaye zilapho kuqalisa khona ityala elininzi. Inkundla yamatyala kulapho iqala khona: ubungqina bunikwa, amangqina, kwaye kugwetywa khona phantsi komthetho, kwaye kulapho kumiswa khona izibakala zetyala, kucaciswe khona ubungqina, kwaye umthetho usetyenziswa kwezo zibakala ukuze kufikelelwe kwisigqibo, ngendima yenkundla yamatyala yokugqiba oko kwenzekayo nokusebenzisa umthetho onxulumene nalo.

Inkundla yephondo yinkundla enegunya eliqhelekileyo kwiphondo yaye igweba lamatyala abandakanya umgaqo-siseko wesizwe nemithetho karhulumente, ukusingatha imicimbi yomthetho enxulumene nomthetho weentsapho, iprobate yezamkeli-mthetho neendawo, amatyala esivumelwano, amatyala okuthoba, kunye namatyala amaninzi alwaphulo-mthetho. Ezi ntwazana zinoko kwaziwa ngokuba "ngumthetho wokuqala," ithetha ukuba ziinkundla zokuqala ukusingatha nokugqiba amatyala.

Owona mahluko ubalulekileyo phakathi kwenkundla egwebayo nenkundla yamatyala kukuba inkundla egwebayo idla ngokungagqibi imbambano yenyani, xa ikwinkundla yamatyala, inyani ifumana ijaji okanye ijaji-iyenza iziphumo zenyaniso, kwaye ngokulula ngakumbi, umfumani wento uza kugqiba, ngokusekelwe kubungqina obunikelwa ngamaqela, oko kwenzekeyo.

Indima YaBagwebi Namatyala Kwinkundla Yetyala

Amatyala angoorhulumente nawamatyala aqala kwiinkundla zamatyala, apho ijaji egweba ijonge ityala kwaye iza kwenza izigqibo apho ubungqina bunokufumaneka khona kwaye bungenakufakwa khona, nasemva kobungqina obuye banikelwa, umgwebi ugqiba ityala okanye ubumsulwa bommangalelwa ngokwezibakala ezichaziweyo. Kwezinye iimeko, amaqela angalichasa ilungelo lawo lokuchophela ityala kwaye endaweni yoko ijaji isebenza njengommeli womthetho nomfumani wenyaniso koko kwaziwayo njengetyala elibizwa ngokuba yi-"betch'."

Kumatyala olwaphulo-mthetho, adla ngokuzanywa kwijaji eligwebayo, ijaji echophela amatyala "ukukhutshwa" kwejaji elisemthethweni ekupheleni kwetyala, kwaye abachopheli-tyala bagqibe ngabom ukufumanisa ukuba ummangalelwa unetyala elisekelwe kumthetho nanjengoko ijaji ifumana. Ukwahlulwa kweendima `umgwebi omisa imibuzo engokwasemthethweni, kunye nejaji egqiba imibuzo eyinyaniso, kwaye umgaqo osisiseko wenkqubo yokugweba yamaMelika.

Iinkundla Zetyala Ezikhethekileyo

Uninzi lwamazwe luye lwayila iinkundla ezikhethekileyo zokuchophela iindidi ezithile zamatyala ngendlela elungeleleneyo. Inkqubo yenkundla yeli lizwe iquka imigangatho eyahlukeneyo yeenkundla, kuquka uMasipala, uRhulumente, iAppellate, kunye neNkundla ePhakamileyo, kwaye zisebenza phantsi kwamagunya nakumagunya ahlukeneyo, aphantsi komthetho othile karhulumente owalawulayo.

UMasipala neeNkundla zasekuhlaleni

Iinkundla zasekuhlaleni, ezikwabizwa ngokuba ziinkundla zikamasipala, ziinkundla ezilawula igunya elilinganiselweyo kwityala elincinane kunye netyala eliphosakeleyo elisenziwa kwidolophu ethile okanye kwisixeko esithile, kwaye imithetho elawula iinkundla zikamasipala yileyo imiselwe yimithetho karhulumente, yaye ngenxa yoku, inkqubo esemthethweni iyahluka-hluka ngokwesizwe nezwe. Ezi nkundla zisoloko zisingatha ukwaphulwa kwezenzo zolwaphulo-mthetho, izaphuli-mthetho ezincinane, kunye nokuphulwa kwemithetho yasekuhlaleni.

Iinkundla Zentsapho

Iinkundla zentsapho zisingatha imicimbi enxulumene nolwalamano lwasekhaya, kuquka uqhawulo-mtshato, ukugcinwa kwabantwana kunye nenkxaso, ukugcinwa kwabantwana, ukukhuliswa kwabantwana, imiyalelo yokukhuselwa kwabantwana, kunye nogonyamelo lwasekhaya.

Iinkundla eziqulunqileyo

Iinkundla zezolawulo zezolawulo emva kokufa komntu, kuquka nemithetho esemthethweni, ukumisela oorhulumente okanye abalawuli, nokuqinisekisa ukuba izinto zisasazwa ngokweminqweno okanye ngokomthetho karhulumente womntu ofileyo. Amanye amazwe anika imigaqo yeenkundla zeprobate kulawulo lweenqanawa ezikhuselayo kunye neenqanawa zokubonelela abantu abadala abangakwaziyo ukuzenzela nto.

Iinkundla Ezincinane

Iinkundla ezincinane zinikela inkqubo eyenziwe lula, engacwangciswanga yokucombulula iimbambano ezibandakanya intlukwano encinane. Ezi nkundla zenzelwe ukufikelela kubantu abangenamagqwetha, neendleko zemali eziphantsi kuneenkundla zasekuhlaleni.

IiNkundla eziBandakanyekileyo

Inkundla yokuqala ethatha ityala, enokuba kumgangatho wesithathu kwiqela lenqanawa lenqanawa, idla ngokuchazwa njengenkundla ephakathi, kwaye umgangatho olandelayo wenkundla edibeneyo yinkundla engqwalaselo yetyala lokugqibela; yinkundla ephakamileyo apho ityala linokuthathwa khona ngokuqhelekileyo. Asiyo yonke imimandla eneenkundla eziphakathi; kuloo mazwe apho kukho ithala elinye kuphela, akukho nkundla ephakathi, kwaye iNkundla ePhakamileyo iyinkundla kumgangatho wesithathu wesilawuli semigangatho.

Amacandelo anganelisekanga sisigqibo senkundla yetyala letyala laseburhulumenteni angafaka isibheno kwiinkundla zetyala, kwaye akwava amatyala abandakanya ukuchazwa kwemithetho yesizwe kunye nomgaqo-siseko wesizwe. Ezi nteko ziphakathi zisebenza umsebenzi obalulekileyo kwinkqubo yokugweba ngokunika umgangatho wokuqala wokuhlola ngeli lixa ukunciphisa umthwalo wetyala kwinkundla ephakamileyo yeli lizwe.

Indlela Iinkundla Ezigweba Ngayo Eziyahluke Ngayo Kwinkundla Yetyala

Inkundla egwebayo ayiyigqibi imibandela yenyaniso, kwaye inkundla echaphazelekayo iza kuthatha iingxelo zenyaniso ize igqibe imbambano yomthetho enikelwa ngamaqela abhenele kwisicelo. Lo ngumahluko ongundoqo abantu abaninzi abawufumanisayo udidekile xa bedibana nenkqubo yokukhupha ityala.

Ngokungafaniyo neenkundla zamatyala, iinkundla ezigwebayo aziwachaphazeli amatyala okanye zive ubungqina obutsha; aziwaphulaphuli amangqina; yaye akukho tyala liqulunqisayo. Iinkundla zejaji zisebenza ngokungqongqo ngokungqinelana nengxelo yetyala kunye neengxoxo ezingokwasemthethweni, ijaji egwebayo isenokugqiba izibakala ezikwityala, ngoxa abagwebi abagwebi abagwebi abagwebi abachanazi iimbambano, iinkundla zigxininisa ekuboneni izibakala ukuba umthetho usetyenziswe ngokuchanekileyo kusini na, kwaye zigxininise ekutheni umthetho usetyenziswe ngokufanelekileyo kusini na.

Ngoxa iinkundla zamatyala zibandakanya ijaji enye eyongamela ityala, eyenze izigqibo yodwa, ize ilawule ityala, inkundla egwebayo isebenzisa iqela labagwebi abathathu ukuva ityala, kunye nesibini esiyila uninzi, kwaye inani labagwebi kwiqela lazo linokwahluka. Le ndlela yeqela labagwebi elinobuninzi inceda ukuqinisekisa ukungaguquguquki nokucokiseka ekwenzeni izigqibo.

Inkqubo yoHlelo loMcebisi

Isibheno asilotyala lophinda ulwenziwo; endaweni yoko, yinkqubo esemthethweni apho inkundla yezibheno okanye inkundla ephakathi ihlola ukuba iimpazamo zomthetho zenzeka ngexesha lokuchotshelwa kwetyala. Umsebenzi wenkundla ethatha inxaxheba kukugqiba ukuba iimpazamo zenzeka kusini na kwinkqubo yokuvavanya okanye ukucaciswa komthetho, okukhokelela kwisiphumo setyala, kunye nenkundla equlunqiweyo ingagqiba ukuba nangona iimpazamo zikho, ezi mpazamo azikhange zivelise ikhethe okanye zibangele ukuvavanywa okungafanelekanga, ngoko ke isigwebo asipheliswanga.

Imibandela ebandakanya isibheno ingabandakanya ukuba umthetho osetyenziswa yinkundla yamatyala wawuchanile, nokuba bekukho ubungqina obaneleyo bokufumana into eyinyaniso, okanye ukuba ijaji iye yaphambuka ngokukhanyela isicelo sommangaleli sokunikela ubungqina obuthile. Amagqwetha achaza iimpazamo ezingokwasemthethweni achaze isizathu sokuba ezo mpazamo zivumela ukuguqulwa okanye ukulungiswa kwesigqibo senkundla yetyala.

IiNkundla Eziphakamileyo Zelizwe

Umgangatho olandelayo wenkundla echaphazelekayo yinkundla egwebayo yezonyuso lokugqibela; yinkundla ephakamileyo apho ityala lingathathwa khona ngokuqhelekileyo, kwaye ezi nkosana ziphezulu zibekwa khona, "iinkundla ezinyukileyo". Noko ke, ngamanye amaxesha, amaphondo anamagama ahlukeneyo eenkundla zephondo, umzekelo, iNkundla ePhakamileyo ayiyoyona iphakamileyo, njengokuba iNkundla ePhakamileyo iyinkundla yamatyala, enokudidekaliswa njengoko uninzi lwamazwe lusebenzisa eli gama ukubhekisa kwinkundla ephakamileyo yephondo, kwaye iNkundla yeZibheno yeNew York yeNkundla yeSibheno yeNkulelo yeNkundla yeNkundla yeNkundla yephondo ingo ephezulu yeNkanga.

Inkundla ePhakamileyo yeRhulumente inegunya lokuphulaphula iimpikiswano phakathi kwesizwe kwaye iphulaphule amatyala abandakanya ukuchazwa komgaqo-siseko wesizwe nomthetho karhulumente.

Uhlolisiso Lobulumko Nesihlomelo

Kwinkqubo enetyala eliphakathi, ilungelo elipheleleyo lommangalelwa elingomnye lokuhlola linwebela kuphela kwinkundla ephakathi, kwaye ukuba inkundla ifanele igqibe ngetyala lakhe, ummangalelwa angacela iNkundla ePhakamileyo ukuba ihlole ityala lakhe, kodwa kufuneka yenjenjalo kuphela ngengqiqo yayo, kwaye isicelo esicela uhlolo oluluvo olululo sibizwa ngokuba sisicelo sesibeleko.

Ezo nkundla ziphakamileyo ezilawula igunya elisemthethweni zidla ngokungavumi ukuvuma izibongozo ezininzi ze-certitoorari, zithintela ukuhlolisiswa kwazo kwezona zibalulekileyo, kwaye ngenxa yoko, kwanalapho iqumrhu lejaji lenkundla linemigangatho emine kunemitha emithathu, amatyala amaninzi angoonorhulumente okanye alwaphulo-mthetho angayi kugqitha kumgangatho wesithathu. Eli gunya lilawula livumela iinkundla eziphakamileyo ukuba zinike ingqalelo kwimiqathango elinganiselweyo kwiimeko eziphakamisa imibuzo okanye iimfazwe ezibalulekileyo ezisemthethweni ezifuna ukwenziwa kwesombululo.

Igunya Lokuzibandakanya Ngezigqibo Zokugqiba

Omnye umahluko phakathi kwetyala kunye neenkundla zetyala elichaphazelekayo ngowokuba uluvo lwenkundla echaphazelekayo luthathwa njengelo "lugunya elibophelelayo", kwaye xa ijaji egwebayo yenza isigqibo, isigqibo sisebenza kumaqela kuloo meko, kodwa asisebenzi kwamanye amatyala. Lo mgaqo wemizekelo, owaziwa ngokuba "ngunodesis," usisiseko kwinkqubo yomthetho eqhelekileyo kwaye unceda ukuqinisekisa ukungaguquguquki nokuxelwa kwangaphambili komthetho.

Ukuqonda Iinkqubo Ezingokwasemthethweni Kwinkundla Yetyala

Ukumisela inkqubo yomthetho kufuna ukuqonda amaqondo ahlukeneyo kunye neenkqubo ezidlulayo ukusuka ekuqalisweni ukuya ekugqityweni. Ngelixesha iinkqubo ezithile zingafaniyo ngokwemeko nangohlobo lwetyala, kukho izinto eziqhelekileyo ezisebenza kwiinkqubo ezininzi zenkundla yenkundla yeli lizwe.

Ukuqalisa Ityala

Ityala elingokwasemthethweni liqala xa elinye iqela lifakela uxwebhu olusemthethweni kwinkundla. Kwimicimbi yamakhaya, olu xwebhu ludla ngokubizwa ngokuba "luhlaziywa" okanye "luphindelwe," xa kusenziwa amatyala olwaphulo-mthetho, inkqubo iqala ngokunyuswa kwamacala olwaphulo-mthetho, mhlawumbi ngolwazi olubhalwe ngumtshutshisi okanye ngetyala elibuyiswe liqulunqwa liqulumrhu labagwebi abazukulwana.

Uhlolo lwetyala langaphakathi

Kwimeko yasekuhlaleni, ummangalelwa (ozizisa ityala) ufaka isikhalazo esiveza izityholo eziyinyaniso nezityholo ezingokwasemthethweni ezinxamnye nommangalelwa (umntu omangalelwayo). Isikhalazo kufuneka sisetyenziswe kakuhle kummangalelwa, oye ngoko onexesha elichaziweyo lokubhala impendulo, ebizwa ngokuba yi-"Phendula". Impendulo ingaquka ukhuseleko kwizinto ezithethwa ngumphathi-mthetho kwaye isenokuphinda ichaze ukuphikisana nommangalelwa nomphathi-caltiff.

Ukubekwa Kwetyala Kwezaphuli - mthetho

Amatyala olwaphulo-mthetho aqala xa umthetho ubopha ityala okanye xa umtshutshisi efaka ityala. Umntu obanjwayo kwityala letyala kuqala uza kuziswa phambi komantyi oza kuzisa umbanjwa ngetyala lakhe, acwangcise ibheyile, abonise ityala lomtshutshisi ukuqinisekisa ukuba kwanele ukuthumela kwinkundla yamatyala jikelele. Ummangalelwa unelungelo lokuxelelwa ngezityholo, ukuba abe negqwetha (omiselweyo ukuba ummangalelwa akanamali), nokungena kwisicelo.

Inkqubo Yokufumana

Emva kokuba kuqalisiwe ityala, amatheko abandakanyeka kwinkqubo eqhelekileyo yokunikana ulwazi kunye nokuqokelela ubungqina. Izixhobo zokufumana iziphumo ziquka ukubuza imibuzo (emele ibhalwe phantsi kwesifungo), izicelo zokuveliswa kwamaxwebhu, izicelo zokuvunywa, kunye nokufakwa kwengxelo (okanye ubungqina obuthatyathwe phantsi kokuvavanywa phambi kokuvavanywa).

Inkqubo yokufumana ifeza iinjongo ezininzi ezibalulekileyo: ivumela icala ngalinye ukuba lifunde ngobungqina bolunye icala namangqina, inceda ukuxinana imiba ephikisanayo, inceda amaqela afumane uhlolo olufanelekileyo lobuchule nobuthathaka beemeko zawo, kwaye ithintela ukumangaliswa ekuvavanyweni. Ukutyhilwa kulawulwa ngemithetho eneenkcukacha eyahlukayo ngurhulumente kodwa ilandela imigaqo efanayo.

Intshukumo namazwi angaphambili

Phambi kokuba ityala liye kwityala, amaqela angafaka iifayile zezenzo ezahlukeneyo ezicela inkundla ukuba yenze izigqibo kwimibandela ethile. Iintshukumo eziqhelekileyo zangaphambi kwetyala ziquka ukupheliswa (ukugwetywa ukuba nokuba izityholo zomchasi ziyinyaniso, abathathi ngqinelana nengxelo esemthethweni esemthethweni), ukuthatha inyathelo lokugweba ngokufutshane (ebonisa ukuba akukho mpikiswano yokwenene yento ephathekayo kwaye iqela elihambayo linelungelo lokugweba njengomciso womthetho), kunye nokuthatha inyathelo kwi-limine (ukufuna ukungabufaki ubungqina obuthile ekuvavanyweni).

Kwiimeko zolwaphulo-mthetho, abamangalelwa basenokubhala iifayile zokuthatha inxaxheba ukuze baphelise ubungqina obufunyenwe ngokuchasene namalungelo omgaqo-siseko, ukuhambisa iindleko ezisekelwe ekungabini nasizathu okanye ezinye iziphene, kunye nokuhamba ngemisetyenzana yokutshintsha indawo ukuba ukusasazwa kwetyala kukwenze kwaba nzima ukufumana ityala elifanelekileyo kwindawo yantlandlolo.

Inkqubo Yokuvavanywa

Ukuba ityala aliconjululwanga ngokucocwa, ngokugxothwa, okanye ngokugwetywa ngokufutshane, liqhubekeka licinywa. Iimvavanyo zilandela indlela ecwangcisiweyo elungiselelwe ukuqinisekisa ukuba amacala omabini achaza imeko yawo ngokupheleleyo.

Ukhetho

Kwiimeko apho ityala labachopheli-tyala liceliwe khona kwaye likhona, ityala liqala ngokukhethwa kwabachopheli-tyala, elikwabizwa ngokuba yi-"voir arty". Abangengabo bagwebi bancinwa ngabagwebi namagqwetha ukuze bafumanise ukuba banokuba banokuba ngabafanelekileyo nabangakhethiyo na. Ii-Auttorney zisenokuvavanya iijaji ezinokubakho "ngesizathu" ukuba kukho isizathu esikhethekileyo sokuba umntu angakwazi ukungakhethi buso, kwaye nazo zinenani elisikelweli elilinganiselweyo "ingxaki yokuzisola" ezibavumela ukuba bangabakho abachopheli bengenasizathu (kucingela ucelomngeni olusekelwe kwibala okanye kubufana).

Ukuvula iNgxelo

Emva kokuba inkundla ikhethiwe ize ifunge, icala ngalinye linikela ingxelo yokuvula. Iingxelo zokuvula azibobungqina kodwa kunoko zilithuba lokuba amagqwetha achaze oko alindele ukuba ubungqina buvele. Ityala okanye ityala liqala, lilandelwe yinkundla.

Ukunikelwa Kobungqina

Ityala lichaza kuqala, ukubiza amangqina nokungenisa amaxwebhu kunye nobunye ubungqina obuphathekayo. Ingqina ngalinye liqala lincinwa liqela elibabizayo (uvavanyo olungqalileyo), landule ke lincinwe liqela eliphikisayo (kuvavanywa ngasemva), kwaye lisenokubuzwa kwakhona liqela elibiza (ukuvavanya ngokungqalileyo). Ijaji ibeka imithetho ephikisa imibuzo kunye nobungqina obusekelwe kwimithetho yobungqina.

Emva kokuba ummangalelwa ebekwe kwityala lakhe, ingxengxezo inganikela ubungqina bayo, ilandela indlela efanayo. Kwityala lolwaphulo-mthetho, ummangalelwa unelungelo lomgaqo-siseko lokungangqini, yaye ummangalelwa akanakuthetha ngesigqibo sommangalelwa sokungathathi nxaxheba.

Impikiswano Zokuvala

Emva kokuba bunikelwe bonke ubungqina, icala ngalinye linikela iimpikiswano eziqukumbelayo, lishwankathela ubungqina lize liphikisane ngesizathu sokuba abachopheli betyala bafanele baxhase. Ngokungafaniyo neengxelo zokuqala, iingxoxo zokuvala zivumela amagqwetha ukuba aphikisane ngoko kuthethwa bubungqina aze afumane intelekelelo ebubungqina.

Imiyalelo yengoma kunye nonikezelo

Phambi kokuba abachopheli-tyala baqalise ukuvala amatyala, ijaji iyalela abachopheli-tyala ukuba bawujonge umthetho osebenza kwityala. Le miyalelo icacisa imigangatho esemthethweni emele isetyenziswe ngabachopheli-mthetho, iziqalelo ezimele ziqinisekiswe, nomthwalo omele ungqine. Kwimeko zolwaphulo-mthetho, abatshutshisi kufuneka babonise ukuba banetyala "ngaphandle kokuthandabuza okusengqiqweni," ngoxa kwiimeko zasekuhlaleni, umchola-tyala makalingqine ngokufaka kwetyala labo ngo-"ukungaqiniseki "ukuchana kobungqina" (ukutsho ukuba okunokwenzeka kakhulu).

Abachopheli betyala bandule ukuthatha umhlala-phantsi ngabom ngasese. Kwizigwebo zolwaphulo-mthetho, isigqibo kumele sihlangane, nangona amanye amazwe evumela izigqibo ezingavumelaniyo kwiimeko ezithile. Kwimeko zasekuhlaleni, amazwe amaninzi avumela izigqibo zegosa elikhulu kunokuba afune ukungaphili.

Isigwebo noMgwebo

Xa ijaji ifikelela kwisigqibo, ibuyela enkundlani ize ivakalise isigqibo sayo. Kwityala lolwaphulo-mthetho, isigwebo sisenokuba sibophelelekile okanye asibi natyala kwityala ngalinye. Kwityala ngalinye, isigqibo sasekuhlaleni simisela ityala, yaye ukuba umchola-tyala uphumelele, isixa semali esimele sinikwe. Ngoko ijaji ingena kwisigwebo esisekelwe kwisigqibo, esiba ngumyalelo wenkundla esemthethweni kweli tyala.

Intshukumo yeposi

Emva kwesigqibo, iqela eliphulukana netyala lingayifayile ihamba emva kwetyala licela ijaji ukuba ibeke ecaleni okanye ilungise isigqibo. Ezi zingaquka iintshukumo zomgwebo phezu kwesigqibo (inyani yokuba akukho jaji ifanelekileyo inokuba ifikelele kwisigqibo esenziweyo), iintshukumo zokuvavanya okutsha (ukuvuma ukuba iimpazamo ngexesha lokuvavanywa zifuna ukuvavanywa okutsha), okanye ukuthatha intshukumo ukunciphisa umonakalo (kwimeko yamakhaya apho uhlazo lunyuswe lugqithisele kakhulu).

Inkqubo Yezibheno

Ngenxa yokuba ukumangalelwa kunqabile ukuba kuphumelele, omnye wamaqela esuti udla ngokungavumi xa kubhengezwa isigqibo sokugqibela, kwaye ukuba iqela elingavumiyo likholelwa ukuba ijaji okanye abachopheli-tyala benze impazamo esemthethweni, iqela lingafaka isibheno, kwaye iinkundla ezilawulayo azizichazi iimpazamo ezizizo.

Kumaphondo amaninzi ase-U.S., nakwinkundla yorhulumente waseUnited States, amaqela phambi kwenkundla avunyelwa ukuba abhenele kwityala elinye njengelilungileyo, nto leyo ethetha ukuba iqela elinganelisekanga yimiphumo yetyala linokuzisa isibheno kukhuphiswano ukuze iziphumo zomphumo zibe zezixabisa kancinci, yaye inkundla ekhupha ityala kufuneka ifumane impazamo kwicandelo lenkundla elingezantsi ephazamisayo kwisigqibo, kwaye ngoko ke, kusenokuba ngumlinganiselo omncinane kuphela wezigwebo zenkundla yokuvavanya ityala ophumela ekubhexezeni.

Ukubhabha Isaziso Sesibheno

Isibheno siqala ngokufakwa kwesaziso sesibheno ngexesha elibaluliweyo emva komgwebo wokugqibela wenkundla echongiweyo. Ukungalufumani olu cwangciso kungaphumela ekulahlekelweni kwalungelo lokubhena. Iqela elifakelayo libizwa ngokuba "apleant" ngelixa elinye iqela lingu "allee" okanye "elandule".

Ingxelo Eceliweyo

Umqwalaseli kufuneka alungiselele ukulungiselelwa kwerekhodi ekubhenqweni, okuquka iingeniso zenkundla egwebayo, irejista yetyala, kunye neziboniso ezivunyiweyo. Le ngxelo yeyona izakuqwalaselwa yinkundla edlulisayo ekugqibeni isibheno.

Iimpinda ezifutshane

Amaqela anikezela iimpinda ezibhaliweyo eziphikisa iindawo zawo. Ukuchaza kafutshane kwemposiso ezityholwayo kwaye achaze isizathu sokuba bafuna ukuguqulwa okanye utshintsho lwesigqibo senkundla evavanyiweyo. Iimpendulo ezifutshane zenkundla evavanyayo zezi mpikiswano kwaye achaze isizathu sokuba isigqibo senkundla egwetyiweyo siqinisekiswe. Umgwebi angafaka iimpendulo ezifutshane kwimpikiswano ezintsha eziphakanyiswe kwimposiso ye-appellee.

Impikiswano Engoonobumba

Kwiimeko ezininzi, inkundla edlulisa iintetho iza kucwangcisa impikiswano edluliselwa ngomlomo, apho amagqwetha kwicala ngalinye anikela iimpikiswano zawo kwaye aphendule imibuzo evela kubagwebi. Ingxoxo yequmrhu incinane kakhulu kunetyala, isoloko ilinganiselwe kwimizuzu eli-15 okanye engama-30 macala onke. Asizizo zonke izibongozo eziquka impikiswano yomlomo; ezinye zigqitywe ukuba "kwizingxubusho" ngaphandle kokudlulisela umlomo.

Isigqibo Esiza Kufikelwa

Ngokuqhelekileyo, umgwebo wenkundla edluliselweyo unika umyalelo wokugqibela wenkundla yezibheno malunga netyala elibheno, umisela ngokungqalileyo ukuzimisela kwenkundla ukuba isenzo esibhenqiweyo esisuka kwinkundla siqinisekiswe, silungiswe, silungiswe okanye silungiswe. Ukuba inkundla ephetheyo ifumana ukuba inkundla evavanyayo yenza impazamo engomthetho eyachaphazela isiphumo, ingasibuyisela umva umgwebo, umyalelo omtsha, okanye iphinde idlulisele ityala kwinkundla yetyala ngemiyalelo ebhekele phambili.

Inkcazo Ebalulekileyo Esemthethweni

Ukuqonda ulwimi olusetyenziswa kumatyala asemthethweni kubalulekile kuye nabani na ohamba ngenqanawa enkundleni. Nawa amagama angundoqo omele uwazi:

Izahlukano Kwityala

  • [[UMTL:0] Umthetho ocacileyo: Umntu okanye iqumrhu eliqalisa ukumangalelana ngokwesikhalazo selizwe. Ummangali uthwala umthwalo wokuvavanya imeko yabo.
  • [[UMTL:0] I-Defanti: Umntu okanye umbutho omangalelwayo okanye omangalelwa ngolwaphulo-mthetho kwityala lolwaphulo-mthetho. Ummangalelwa unelungelo lokunikela ukhuseleko.
  • Appellant: Iqela elibhenela kwisigqibo senkundla ephezulu, liphikisa ngelithi iimpazamo ezingokwasemthethweni zenziwa.
  • [[UMTL: 0] Appelle/Resate: Iqela eliphendula kwisibheno, ngokuqhelekileyo liphikisa ngelithi isigqibo senkundla egwebayo kufuneka sixhaswe.
  • Intelekelelo: Iqela elifakela isicelo nenkundla, njengesicelo sesibeleko kwinkundla ephakamileyo.
  • [[UMTL: 0] Idityanisiwe: Iqela eliphendula isicelo.

Ingxelo yeNkundla namaxwebhu

  • ICumlast/Indawo: Uxwebhu lokuqala lugcinwa ukuze kuqalwe ukumangalelwa kwetyala kwamakhaya, kuvezwe izityholo zommangali kunye nezityholo ezisemthethweni.
  • [[UMTL:0] Impendulo: impendulo yommangalelwa kwisikhalazo, evuma okanye ekhanyela izityholo kwaye eqinisekisa naluphi na ukhuselo.
  • [[UMTL:0] Isicelo esisemthethweni esicela inkundla ukuba yenze isigqibo okanye umyalelo othile.
  • Impikiswano ebhaliweyo yomthetho engeniswe kwinkundla, ingakumbi eqheleke kwiziphumo zetyala.
  • [[Umthetho:0] Ukubekwa:[[Ubungqina obungaphucukanga] obuthatyathwe ngaphandle kwenkundla, ngokuqhelekileyo kwi-ofisi yegqwetha, njengenxalenye yenkqubo yokufumana.
  • ISubpoena: Umyalelo wenkundla ofuna umntu avele aze angqine okanye avelise amaxwebhu.
  • Summons: Uxwebhu olwazisa ummangalelwa ukuba ityala libekwe kwityala kwaye lifuna impendulo.

Izigqibo Nemiphumo

  • Isigwebo esifikelelwa liqumrhu labachopheli-tyala (okanye ijaji kwityala lebheri) kwimibuzo yenyaniso kwimeko.
  • Isivumelwano senkundla esisemthethweni sangena ngokusekelwe kwisigqibo okanye kwisigqibo senkundla.
  • Opinion: Ingcaciso ebhaliweyo yenkundla yesigqibo sayo, kuquka nokuqiqa okusemthethweni.
  • [[FLT: 0] Isiqinisekiso: Isigqibo senkundla ejongeneyo sokuphakamisa ugwebo lwenkundla esezantsi.
  • Isigqibo senkundla edityanisiweyo sokubhukuqa ugwebo lwenkundla esezantsi.
  • Isigqibo senkundla yetyala sokuthumela ityala emva kwinkundla evavanyiweyo ukwenzela ukuqulunqwa okuthe rhoqo.
  • I-Dismissal: Yisigqibo senkundla sokuphelisa ityala ngaphandle kwetyala ngeempawu ezintle, ezisoloko zisekelwe kwimimiselo yendalo.

Imilinganiselo Nemigaqo Esemthethweni

  • Ibhedi yobungqina: Imbopheleleko yokungqina iintengiso okanye izityholo zikabani. Kwimeko zasekuhlaleni, oku kudla ngokuba "kugxininisa ubungqina"; kwiimeko zolwaphulo-mthetho, "kungaphaya kwamathandabuzo asengqiqweni."
  • I-juridition: Igunya lenkundla ukuva nokugqiba uhlobo oluthile lwetyala okanye amatyala abandakanya amaqela athile.
  • Isiqinisekiso somthetho: Igunya lenkundla lokuva ityala okokuqala, ngokuchasene nesibheno.
  • Appellete Juricion: Igunya lenkundla ukuhlola izigqibo zeenkundla ezisezantsi.
  • [[UMTL:0] Ukuma:[[UMTL] Imfuneko yokuba iqela libe nomthi owaneleyo kwityala lokuyizisa enkundleni.
  • Ityala eliphambili lisebenza njengegunya lokugqiba amatyala afanayo kwixesha elizayo.
  • Stare Decisis: The legal principle that courts should follow precedent when deciding cases with similarfacts and legal issues.

Ubungqina Nenkcazelo

  • [[UMTL:0] Ubungqina obungagungqiyo: Ubungqina obufikelela iimfuno ezisemthethweni zokunikezelwa kwijaji okanye kwijaji.
  • isandi selizwi: Umba wengxelo ongaphandle kwenkundla othenjiwe ukungqina inyaniso yento eqinisekisiweyo, jikelele engasetyenziswa ngaphandle kokuba umahluko uyasebenza.
  • Into: [ A uqhankqalazo olusemthethweni lwegqwetha elibuza umbuzo, ubungqina, okanye ubungqina buphula imithetho yenkqubo okanye ubungqina.
  • [[UMTL:0] Ifakelwe: umthetho womgwebi ovumelana nempikiswano.
  • Imithetho yejaji engavumelaniyo nempikiswano.
  • Uvavanyo lwamanani: Iingxelo ezenziwe ngamangqina phantsi kwesifungo.
  • Ukwasulelwa- ukudityaniswa: ukubuza ubungqina ngumphathi wengingqi ophikisanayo.

Iindidi Zetyala Kwienkundla Zetyala

State courts handle a vast array of case types, each with its own procedures and legal standards. Understanding these different categories helps clarify which court has jurisdiction and what procedures will apply.

Amatyala Ezaphuli - mthetho

Uninzi lolwaphulo-mthetho nolwaphulo-mthetho, njengobuphangi, ukudlwengula nokubulala, kukuphulwa kwemithetho karhulumente, yaye ngaloo ndlela amatyala aviwa ziinkundla zikarhulumente. Amatyala olwaphulo-mthetho abandakanya urhulumente (oboniswa ngumtshutshisi) omangalela umntu otyholwa ngokwaphula umthetho.

Iinketho zegama leqela leenkwenkwezi (iyodwa) FAOobject name (optional)

Izenzo zolwaphulo-mthetho ezinzulu, ezidla ngokuchazwa njengetyala eligwetywayo ngokuvalelwa entolongweni ngaphezu konyaka okanye ngokufa. Imizekelo iquka ukubulawa, ukudlwengulwa, ukuphanga, ukuqhekeza, kunye netyala elinzulu leziyobisi. Amatyala angaqhelekanga adla ngokuqala kwiinkundla zokuvavanywa kolawulo jikelele kwaye abandakanya iinkqubo ezithe kratya, kuquka ukugwetywa ngokunzulu kwamatyala okanye ukuchotshelwa kwamatyala ngokomthetho kumaphondo amaninzi.

Iimpazamo

Amatyala angekho mandundu, adla ngokubekwa isigwebo sonyaka omnye entolongweni, okanye zombini. Imizekelo iquka ukuhlasela okulula, ubusela obuncinane, i-DUI (kwimimandla emininzi), kunye nehambo engalungelelananga. Amatyala angekho mthethweni angavakala kwiinkundla zegunya elilinganiselweyo okanye kwinkundla yamatyala jikelele, kuxhomekeka kwisakhiwo senkundla yenkundla yelo lizwe.

Ukuphambana nokwaphula umthetho

Ulwaphulo-mthetho olungekho nzulu, ulwaphulo-mthetho oludla ngokubandakanya kuphela intlawulo kwaye lungangeni thuba lanto. Ukuphulwa kwemiboniso yootrato lolona hlobo luqhelekileyo lokwaphula umthetho.

Ityala Lelizwe

Iinkundla zephondo zikwasingatha imicimbi yasekuhlaleni; ukwenzakala ngokobuqu, ukungaqhubi, uqhawulo-mtshato, intsapho, ulutsha, iprobate, kunye nezivumelwano kunye namatyala ezezefama, xa sikhankanya nje ambalwa, ngamatyala akwimigangatho karhulumente. Amatyala amakhaya abandakanya iimbambano phakathi kwabantu ngabanye (okuquka abantu, amashishini, okanye amaqumrhu karhulumente) apho elinye iqela lifuna imbuyekezo okanye uncedo komnye umntu.

Umonakalo Nomonakalo Womntu

Amatyala okwenzakala komntu siqu aquka amabanga okuthi ihambo yenye ingxwelerha okanye yengozi ebangelwa ngumntu othile. Iintlobo eziqhelekileyo ziquka iingozi zemoto, ukungaphili-mayeza, iimfanelo zemali (ukungatyi okanye ukuwa), iindleko zemveliso, nokufa okuphosakeleyo. La matyala adla ngokufuna ilahleko yemali ukuhlawula umntu olimeleyo ngeendleko zezonyango, ukuphulukana nomvuzo, iintlungu, kunye nokunye ukulahlekelwa.

Iimpikiswano Ezimanyeneyo

Amatyala abandakanya ukutyholwa ukuba omnye umntu akaphumeleli ukuphumeza iimbopheleleko phantsi kwesivumelwano. Ezi zibandakanya izivumelwano zoshishino, izivumelwano zemisebenzi, ukuthengiselwana kwempahla, izivumelwano zokwakha, okanye izivumelwano zokuthenga. Izivumelwano zokwakha zingaquka ukonakaliswa kwemali, ukusebenza okukhethekileyo (ukufuna ukuba iqela liphumeze isivumelwano), okanye ukubuyiselwa (ukuphumeza isivumelwano).

Iingxabano Zempahla

Iimeko zempahla zibandakanya iimpikiswano malunga nezindlu okanye impahla yomntu ngamnye. Ezi zinto zingaquka iimpikiswano zomda, iimbambano ezidambisa ukungabikho kwendlu, imicimbi yomnini-ndlu, imicimbi yokuzikhusela, nezenzo zelo qumrhu lemiba.

Umthetho Wentsapho Ubalulekile

Amatyala omthetho wentsapho abandakanya ulwalamano olusemthethweni phakathi kwamalungu entsapho. Iintlobo eziqhelekileyo ziquka uqhawulo-mtshato nolwahlulo olusemthethweni, ukugcinwa kwabantwana kunye nokutyelelwa, inkxaso yabantwana, inkxaso yomtshato (antion), ukukhuliselwa, ukukhuliswa, kunye nemiyalelo yokukhuselwa kogonyamelo lwasekhaya. Amazwe amaninzi aneenkundla ezikhethekileyo zokusingatha le mibandela ingxakeko.

Ukulungisa Ifa Nemibandela

Iimeko ezichaphazelekayo zibandakanya ulawulo lwemihlaba yabantu abafileyo, kuquka izivumelwano, ukumisela abameli, ukuqokelela iimpahla, ukuhlawula amatyala nerhafu, kunye nokusasaza impahla kwiindlalifa okanye abangeneli. Iinkundla zezoburhulumente zisenokuphatha iinqanawa zokukhusela kunye neenqanawa zokulungisa indalo kubantu abakhubazekileyo, nakwamanye amazwe, ukuthathwa kwabantwana kunye nokutshintsha kwamagama.

Oonobumba Abancinane

Iinkundla zamatyala ze Juvenile zisingatha amatyala abandakanya abantwana (abantu abangaphantsi kweminyaka 18). Ezi ziquka amatyala obunjubaqa (apho umntwana amangalelwa ngehambo enokuba lulwaphulo-mthetho ukuba usenziwa ngumntu omdala), amatyala ombuso (ukuziphatha okungekho mthethweni ngenxa nje yobudala bomntu, njengokungaqiniseki okanye ukubaleka), ukuxhomekeka nokungakhathalelwa (apho urhulumente afuna ukukhusela umntwana ekuxhatshazweni okanye ekutyeshelweni), nakwamanye amazwe, ulwaphulo-mthetho lwezithuthi eziqhutywa ngabantu abancinane.

Iingxelo zolwaphulo-mthetho zigxininisa ekubuyiselweni kobomi kunokuba zohlwaywe yaye zidla ngokungabi yinto esesikweni kunezo zabethwa ngabantu abadala.

Amalungelo Nokhuseleko KwiNkundla

UMgaqo-siseko wase-U.S. kunye nomgaqo-siseko wesizwe unika amalungelo abalulekileyo nenkuselo kumaqela ekuwisweni kwenkundla. Ukuqonda la malungelo kubalulekile kuye nabani na obandakanyekileyo kwinkqubo yomthetho.

Amalungelo omGaqo-siseko kumatyala ezaphuli-mthetho

Abameli kwiimeko zolwaphulo-mthetho baneenkuselo ezininzi, eziquka:

  • [[NTL:0] Ilungelo lokucebisa: IsiHlanzi soHlelo seSithandathu siqinisekisa ilungelo kwigqwetha elikwizityholo zolwaphulo-mthetho. Ukuba ummangalelwa akanakukwazi ukuhlawula igqwetha, umntu makamiselwe ngendleko karhulumente nangaliphi na ityala apho ukuvalelwa kunokwenzeka isohlwayo.
  • [[UMTL:0] Ekunene Ukuhlala Uthulile: IsiHlisi sesihlanu sikhusela ekuzichaseni. Abameli abanakunyanzeleka ukuba bangqine ngokuchasene nabo, kwaye ukuzola kwabo akunakusetyenziswa kubo.
  • Ityala elikwi Jury Ityala:[ IsiHlaliso seSithandathu siqinisekisa ilungelo lokuchotshelwa kwetyala kumatyala olwaphulo-mthetho ngenxa yetyala eligwetywayo elingaphaya kweenyanga ezintandathu.
  • Ilungelo lokujongena namaNgqina ajongene noMkhosi: Uhlaziyo lweSithandathu luqinisekisa ilungelo lokudibana namangqina anqamlezileyo angqina ummangalelwa.
  • [[UMTL:0] Ukhuselo ngokuchasene nophendlo olungekho ngqiqweni kunye noSezitures: Uhlaziyo lwesine lufuna ukuba ukukhangela nokuxhuzula kubenobusengqiqweni kwaye kudla ngokufuna isiqinisekiso esisekelwe kwisizathu esilindelekileyo.
  • [[UMTL:0] Ilungile Kwinkqubo Elindelekileyo: IsiHlanzi seMimiselo yesihlanu neyeshumi elinesine iqinisekisa ukuba urhulumente akanakuhlutha umntu ubomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla ngaphandle kwenkqubo efanelekileyo yomthetho.
  • [[UMTL: 0] Ukhuselo oluchasene nokufumana i-opardy ephindwe kabini: IsiHlanzi sesihlanu soMgqibo sikwalela ukuzama umntu kabini ukutyala elinye emva kokumgweba okanye ukuqiniseka.
  • [[UMTL:0] Ekunene kwityala elikhawulezileyo nelinguwonke-wonke: IsiHlanzi soMgqino-mthetho weSithandathu siqinisekisa ukuvavanywa ngokukhawuleza nokusetyenziswa nguwonke wonke.

Amalungelo Kwityala Lamakhaya

Nangona abamangalelwa bemibutho yabo bengenazo zonke izikhuseli zomgaqo-siseko ezifana nabamangalelwa ngezaphuli - mthetho, banawo amalungelo abalulekileyo:

  • [[UMTL:0] Icala kwiNdlela ePhakathi: Ilixa-nxaxheba kufuneka lifumane isaziso semicimbi kunye nethuba lokuviwa phambi kokuba liphucwe impahla okanye amanye amalungelo.
  • Ekunene kwityala le Jury: Kwimeko ezininzi zamakhaya, amaqela anelungelo kwityala labachopheli-tyala, nangona eli lungelo lingabaleki njengakwityala lolwaphulo-mthetho kwaye lingarhoxiswa.
  • [[UMTHETHO: 0] Ilungelo lokucebisa: Ngelixesha kungekho mGaqo-siseko lungelo lokumisela icebiso kwiimeko zasekuhlaleni, amaqela anelungelo lokuqesha igqwetha ukuba ayakwazi ukulithenga.
  • Ityala kumaNkundla: UmGaqo-siseko uqinisekisa ukufikelela okunentsingiselo kwiinkundla, okusenokufuna indawo yokuhlala ngenxa yokukhubazeka, ukutolikwa ulwimi, okanye ukuhlawulwa kwamaqela angenayo.

Enye impikiswano

Asizizo zonke iimpikiswano ezingokwasemthethweni eziconjululwayo ngokwezityholo zenkundla yesithethe. Iindlela ezinokusetyenziswa kwingxoxo echaseneyo (ADR) zinika amaqela ezinye iindlela zokucombulula iingxabano zawo, ngokufuthi ezikhawulezileyo nezibiza kancinci kunezokuba zixabisiwe.

Isicwangciso

Ukuququzelela kubandakanya iqela lesithathu elingoondilele (umlamleli) elinceda amaqela ukuba anxibelelane kwaye athethelene ngakwindawo ahlala kuyo ngokuzithandela. Umlamli akazenzeli izigqibo okanye amise izisombululo kodwa kunoko wenza kube lula ukuncokola kwaye ancede amaqela afumane indawo enye. Intetho-Mbali ayinyanzeli ngaphandle kokuba amaqela afikelela isivumelwano, esinokuthi ngoko kumiselwe isivumelwano sesivumelwano sokwahlukana.

Iinkundla ezininzi zifuna okanye zikhuthaza ukuthethwano phambi kwetyala, ingakumbi kumthetho weentsapho nakumatyala asekuhlaleni. Ukuququzelelwa kusenokuba luncedo ngokukhethekileyo kwiimbambano apho amaqela aqhubeka eqhubana, njengemicimbi yentsapho, iimpikiswano zommelwane, okanye imicimbi yezoshishino.

Ushenxiso

Ukuthatyathwa kwemiqathango kubandakanya ukulwa neqela lesithathu elingoondilele (umchongi) eliva ubungqina kunye neempikiswano kumacala omabini lize ligqibe isigqibo. Ngokungafaniyo nokuququzelelwa, ukuvalela kuphumela kwisigqibo esibophelelekileyo (kwizi meko ezininzi) esinamandla omgwebo wenkundla.

Ukuhlawulwa kusenokufuneka ngesivumelwano (esifana nezivumelwano ezininzi zemisebenzi kunye nezivumelwano zabathengi) okanye kusenokukhethwa ngokuzithandela ngamatheko. Ukuthatyathwa komthetho kudla ngokuba kuncinane kunetyala lenkundla kwaye kusenokukhawuleza kwaye kungabizi mali ingako, nangona amaqela ewayeka amalungelo athile, kuquka ilungelo lokuchophela ityala lamadoda agwebayo yaye ngokufuthi ilungelo lokubhenela.

Iingqungquthela Zokuzinzisa

Iinkundla ezininzi zibamba iintlanganiso zokulungisa, apho ijaji okanye imantyi idibana namaqela namagqwetha ayo ukuze ixubushe ngeenjongo zokuhlaziywa. Ngoxa iintlanganiso ezifana neziququzelo zowiso-mthetho ziqhutywa ligosa eligwebayo elinokunikela ingqwalasela yetyala kunye neziphumo ezinokwenzeka ukuba liya kuvavanywa.

Ukucingela Iinkundla Zelizwe Ezilawulayo

Ukuqhuba inkqubo yenkundla yeli lizwe ngempumelelo kufuna okungaphezulu kunokuqonda nje indlela ehlelwe ngayo kunye neenkqubo zayo. Nazi izinto eziluncedo kumntu obandakanyekileyo kwinkundla.

Ukubaluleka Komelo Olusemthethweni

Ngeli xesha amaqela enelungelo lokuzimela (abonakala "pro se"), ukuntsonkotha kweenkqubo zomthetho kunye nomthetho ophantsi kwenza ukusetyenziswa komthetho kucebiseke kakhulu kwiimeko ezininzi. Abathathi-nxaxheba bayayiqonda imigaqo yenkundla, imithetho yobungqina, kunye necebo elisemthethweni ngendlela abangeyomithetho abakwaziyo. Kwanakwimeko apho umelo olupheleleyo lungafikeleleki, umelo olulinganiselweyo okanye uqeqesho olusemthethweni lungafumaneka.

Iindleko Zenkundla Nezintlu

Ukuthabatha inxaxheba kwinkqubo yenkundla kubandakanya iindleko ezahlukahlukeneyo, kuquka iindleko zemali zefashoni, iindleko zenkcitho yenkqubo, iindleko zokufumana irekhodi neerekhodi, iindleko zobungqina, kunye neendleko zegqwetha. Ezi ndleko zinokuba zininzi kwaye zifanele ziqwalaselwe xa kugqitywe enoba kufuneka kuphunyelwe okanye kukhuselwe ityala. Ezinye iinkundla zinika abahlawuli abahlawulwayo kwiimeko zasekuhlaleni, kunye nabamangalelwa-mthetho abangenalungelo lokufumana isiluleko esimiselweyo.

Ukucingisisa Ixesha

Imicimbi yomthetho ithatha ixesha elide kakhulu kunokuba abantu abaninzi belindele. Kwaneemeko ezilula ngokuthelekisa iinyanga ukucombulula, ngoxa amatyala anzima esenokuthatha iminyaka. Imiqathango yemiqathango imisela amaxesha okugqiba iindidi ezithile zamatyala, kwaye imithetho yesithethe imisela ixesha elingqongqo lokukhupha iikopi neempendulo ezahlukeneyo. Ukungalilandeli eli xesha kungaphumela ekulahlekelweni kwamalungelo abalulekileyo.

Ukuqonda Ukunconywa Kwenkundla

Iinkundla zizimiselo ezisesikweni ezinemithetho ekhethekileyo yehambo. Isimilo esifanelekileyo senkundla siquka ukunxiba ngendlela esemthethweni, ukufika ngexesha, ukuma xa ijaji ingena okanye amagqabi, ibiza ijaji ngokuthi "Imbeko Yakho," ukuthetha kuphela xa unikwe imvume, nokucima iicell phone. Ukungaphumeleli ukulandela isimilo senkundla kungaphumela ekujongeni ukudelelwa kwenkundla.

Ukugcina Iingxelo

Ukugcina iirekhodi ezilungelelanisiweyo kubalulekile nakuwuphi na umbandela womthetho. Oku kuquka ukugcina imibhalo yazo zonke iifayile zenkundla, iileta, ubungqina, kunye namaphetshana encoko namagqwetha namanye amaqela. Ukugcina iingxelo kunceda ukuqinisekisa ukuba ulwazi olubalulekileyo luyafumaneka xa kuyimfuneko kwaye lunokugxekwa ukuba ityala libhenele.

Umahluko Phakathi Kweenkqubo Zeenkundla Zelizwe

Ngeli xesha iinkqubo zenkundla yeli lizwe zineempawu ezifanayo, kukho umahluko ophawulekayo phakathi kwamatyala ngendlela iinkundla zawo ezicwangcisiweyo nezisetyenziswa ngayo. Ukuqonda oku kwahluka kubaluleke, ingakumbi kumagqwetha aqhelisela kumaphondo amaninzi okanye kumaqela abandakanyekileyo kumatyala akwimimandla engaqhelekanga.

Iindlela Zokhetho Lomthetho

Amazwe asebenzisa iindlela ezahlukeneyo zokukhetha abagwebi, kuquka unyulo lwabaququzeleli (apho abagwebi basebenza njengamalungu amaqela ezobupolitika), unyulo olungangeni kwicala lamaqela (apho abagwebi basebenza ngaphandle kweqela), lufanele ukhetho okanye "ISicwangciso se-Missouri" (apho ikhomishini imisela abathathi-nxaxheba kunye nerhuluneli kwimine, kunye nonyulo olugcinwayo kamva), kunye nokumiselwa kwe-gabernerator okanye ukumiselwa kwemithetho. Indlela nganye ineengenelo neemfuno zenkululeko yenkundla, ukuphendula kobutyala, nobulunga.

Uguqu-guquko lweNkundla

Amanye amaphondo aneenkqubo ezimanyeneyo zenkundla egweba elinye lolawulo jikelele, lo gama amanye eneentlobo ezininzi zeenkundla zamatyala ezilawula imimandla eyahlukeneyo. Inani lenkundla echaphazelekayo liyahluka, namanye amazwe anenkundla ephakamileyo kuphela ngelinye ixesha amanye aneenkundla eziphakathi. Amagama enkundla ayahluka ngokuphawulekayo phakathi kwamazwe, anokubangela isiphithiphithi.

Umahluko

Nangona amazwe amaninzi efumene imithetho yenkqubo esekelwe kwiMithetho yePhondo yoLuntu neMimiselo yoNyaka yeCawa, kukho umahluko omkhulu kwimithetho yezithethe phakathi kwamazwe. Oku kwahluka-hlukene kungachaphazela yonke into ukusuka kwindlela esungulwe ngayo imicimbi yokufumana iinkqubo zokuvavanya ihambo.

Ulwalamano Phakathi KweeNkundla Zorhulumente NezoManyano

Ukuqonda indlela iinkundla zikarhulumente ezinxibelelene ngayo neenkundla zikarhulumente kubalulekile ekuqondeni ngokupheleleyo imbono yenkqubo yokugweba yaseMerika.

Impinda eququzelelayo

Kwezinye iimeko, iinkundla zorhulumente nezesizwe zinegunya kwityala. Oku kubizwa ngokuba lulawulo lwamaxesha ahlukeneyo. Umzekelo, amatyala abandakanya imibuzo karhulumente anokuziswa kunoma yiliphi inkundla yelizwe okanye yesizwe, kwaye amatyala abandakanya amaqela avela kumazwe awahlukeneyo (ulawulo lolawulo) angaziswa nakweyiphi na indlela ukuba ixabiso lengxoxo lingaphaya komnyango wesizwe.

Ukususwa kunye nokubuyiselwa

Xa ityala libekwa enkundleni yenkundla yephondo kodwa linokubekwa kwinkundla karhulumente, ummangalelwa angakwazi "ukulisusa" ityala kwinkundla yenkundla yesizwe. Ngokwahlukileyo koko, ukuba ityala lisuswe ngokungafanelekanga kwinkundla yesizwe, lisenokuthi "liphinde ligcinwe" emva kwinkundla yephondo.

Uphando Lwezigqibo Zenkundla Yetyala

Izigqibo zeNkundla ePhakamileyo ziyabophelela kuzo zonke iinkundla zikarhulumente, kwaye zibophelelekile kwiinkundla zeli lizwe malunga nemiba yomGaqo-siseko nomthetho karhulumente, kwaye ityala elivela kwinkundla ephakamileyo yephondo lingabhenela kwiNkundla ePhakamileyo ukuba kukho imbambano yomthetho karhulumente ebandakanyekileyo. Noko ke, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yase-U.S. ihlolisisa kuphela inxalenye encinane yezigqibo zenkundla yezorhulumente, ngokuqhelekileyo kuphela ezo zibandakanya imibuzo ebalulekileyo yezomGaqo-siseko karhulumente.

Ukusetyenziswa kweNkundla yaseRhulumente yoMthetho wamaFendel

Iinkundla zikarhulumente zisebenzisa rhoqo zize zitolike umthetho karhulumente, kuquka imithetho karhulumente kunye namalungiselelo omGaqo-siseko. Iinkundla zikaRhulumente zibotshelelwe ziincazelo zeNkundla ePhakamileyo yaseUnited States zomthetho karhulumente kodwa zisenokutolika umthetho karhulumente okokuqala xa iNkundla Ephakamileyo ingakhange iwucombulule lo mba.

Uphuhliso Lwakutshanje Nemikhwa Yexesha Elizayo

Iinkqubo zenkundla yelizwe ziyaqhubeka ziguquka zize ziphendule iimfuno, ubugcisa neemeko zentlalo.

Ubuxhakaxhaka kwiiNkundla

Iinkundla zisebenzisa ubuxhakaxhaka bobugcisa ukuphucula ubuchule nokufikelela kwimithetho. Iinkqubo ze-electronic seapper zivumela amaqela ukuba afake amaxwebhu kwi-intanethi kunokuba abekwe umntu. Ividiyo edibanisiweyo yenza ukuba kuthethwe iindlebe ezikwenye indawo kunye nobungqina, nto leyo eyabaluleka kakhulu ngexesha lesifo se-COVID-19 kwaye iyaqhubeka isetyenziswa kwiingxoxo ezithile. Iindlela zokucombulula impikiswano zinika amaqonga amatsha ngaphandle kokubonakala enkundleni yenkundla.

Ukufikelela Kwinyathelo Lokusesikweni

Urhulumente omninzi uye wasungula iinkqubo zokuphucula ukufikelela kobulungisa obuzimelayo kunye namaqela afumana imali ephantsi. Ezi ziquka iindlela ezilula kunye neenkqubo, amaziko oncedo oluzinzileyo, iinkqubo zomelo olusikelwe umda, kunye nezibonelelo zolwazi olusemthethweni kwi-intanethi. Amanye amazwe asungule iiklasi ezintsha zezifundiswa zomthetho, ezifana neengcali zelayisenisi ezisikelwe umda, ukubonelela uncedo oluthe kratya olungo

Iinkundla ezikhethekileyo kunye neenkundla ezicombulula iingxaki

Iinkundla zezonyango, amarherhe neenkundla ezingenamakhaya zisebenzisa iindlela zonyango kunye neenkundla ezingenamakhaya kwaye zidibanisa abathathi-nxaxheba neenkonzo kunokuba zithembele kwiimpendulo zolwaphulo-mthetho ezingokwesithethe. Ezi nkundla zibandakanya iingxaki ezinxulumene neengxaki ezikhokelela kwiingxaki ezikhoyo ezinegalelo kwiingxaki ezingokwasemthethweni zize zinciphise ubuGcisa.

Utshintsho Lobulungisa

Amaphondo amaninzi aguqula iinkqubo zawo zobulungisa zolwaphulo-mthetho ukusingatha inkxalabo ngokuvalelwa kwabantu abaninzi, ukwahluka kobuhlanga, kunye nokuphathwa kweetyala ezikumgangatho ophantsi. Utshintsho luquka ukuhlaziywa kwebheyile (ukuncitshiswa kwebheyile yemali), ukugwetywa (ukukhutshwa kwezivakalisi ezingephi eziyimfuneko kunye nokwandisa ezinye iindlela ezinokusetyenziswa ngaphandle kokubanjwa), kunye nokucinywa kwemithetho egqwethiweyo (ukukwenza kube lula ukucacisa iingxelo zolwaphulo-mthetho).

Oovimba Bokufunda Okungakumbi

Kubo bafuna inkcazelo eyongezelelekileyo ngenkqubo yomthetho karhulumente, kukho oovimba abaninzi:

I-Websters yeNkundla

Iinkqubo ezininzi zenkundla yeli lizwe zigcina ii-website ezibanzi ezinenkcazelo malunga nesakhiwo senkundla, iinkqubo, iindlela, kunye nemithetho. Ezi webhsayithi zisoloko ziquka uncedo lobuqu lwezibonelelo ezizimeleyo. Iziko lesizwe leeNkundla zikaRhulumente linikezela ngoqhagamshelwano kurhulumente kwii-website zenkundla kunye nolwazi lothelekiso lolwazi malunga neenkqubo zenkundla zenkundla.

Imibutho yoncedo esemthethweni

Imibutho yoncedo olusemthethweni inika uncedo olusemthethweni olukhululekileyo kubantu abafumana abantu abaphantsi kwiimeko zasekuhlaleni. [[FLT: 0] I-Livereji yeeNkonzo zezemali [[FLT: 1] iinkqubo zoncedo lwemali kulo lonke ilizwe kwaye igcina uvimba weenkqubo zasekuhlaleni.

Izalathiso ze Bar

Iintlanganiso ezininzi zezokufundisa neempapasho ezithetha ngemibandela engokwasemthethweni kumagqwetha nakumagqwetha noluntu.

Ithala leencwadi loMthetho

Iinkundla ezininzi zinethala leencwadi elinomthetho elivulekele uluntu, yaye amanye amaziko anike amathala eencwadi omthetho kawonke wonke.

Oovimba Bemfundo

Imibutho emininzi inika ubuncwane bokufundisa malunga nenkqubo yomthetho. ibandakanya ulwazi olusebenzayo kwiinkundla zikarhulumente kunye. Iikholeji ezingagunyaziswanga zinika iiklasi kwinkqubo engokwasemthethweni yabangalawuliyo.

Isiphelo

Iinkqubo zomthetho zikarhulumente zingunozala wenkqubo yokugweba yaseMerika, ukusingatha iimbambano ezininzi ezingokwasemthethweni nokuchaphazela ubomi bezigidi zabantu nyaka ngamnye. Ngoxa ezi nkqubo zinokubonakala zintsonkothile kwaye zoyikisa, ziqonde isiseko sazo, imisebenzi, kunye neenkqubo zazo ezisisiseko zizenza zifikeleleke yaye zingabi nakwazeleka.

Inkqubo yenkundla nganye iquka iinkundla zamatyala apho kuqalwa amatyala nezibakala, iinkundla ezihlola izigwebo zenkundla ezigweba iimpazamo ezingokwasemthethweni, kunye nenkundla ephakamileyo enika isigqibo sokugqibela semibuzo engokwasemthethweni kwiphondo. Ezi nkundla zisingatha iinkundla ezahlukahlukeneyo, ukusuka ekuphulweni kweenqwelo-moya ukuya ekubulaleni amatyala, ukusuka kwiingxelo ezincinane ukuya kugqalwa-gqalwano oluntsonkothileyo, ukusuka kuqhawulo-mtshato ukuya kutsho kwiprobate.

Inkqubo esemthethweni ibandakanya amacandelo amaninzi, ukusuka kwisahlulo sokuqala sokufumana, ukuhamba, ukuvavanya, kunye nesibheno. Kwinqanaba ngalinye, iinkqubo nemigaqo ethile iyasebenza, kwaye amatheko anamalungelo neemfuno ezibalulekileyo. Ngoxa inkqubo inokuba lucelomngeni ekuhambeni, ubuncwane bukhona ukuncedisa, kuquka amagqwetha, iinkqubo zenkundla zokunceda, imibutho yoncedo olusemthethweni, kunye nezinto zokufundisa.

Iinkqubo zenkundla yeli lizwe ziyaqhubeka ziguqula, zisebenzisa ubugcisa obutsha, ziphucula utshintsho ukuze kufikelelwe kubulungisa, kunye nokuphuhliswa kweendlela ezintsha zokucombulula iingxaki zentlalo. Ukuqonda indlela ezi nkqubo ezisebenza ngayo kunika abantu amandla okukhusela amalungelo abo, ukucombulula iimpikiswano zabo, nokuthatha inxaxheba ngokunempumelelo ekuphatheni okusesikweni.

Enoba ubandakanyekile kumbandela ongokwasemthethweni, uqwalasela umsebenzi womthetho, okanye ufuna nje ukuqonda indlela okusetyenziswa ngayo okusesikweni kwilizwe lakho, ulwazi lweenkqubo zomthetho zikarhulumente luxabisekile. Iinkundla zezoluntu ezizikhonzayo, kwaye uluntu olunolwazi lubalulekile ukuqinisekisa ukuba ezi nkqubo zisebenza kakuhle, ngokunempumelelo nangobulungisa.