UMthetho WesiXhobo Wesibhozo: Umqondiso Wokusesikweni Koluntu KuMthetho WaseMerika

IsiHlaliso seSihlaziyo seNkxaso-siseko se-United States simi njengenye yezona zinto zilandelayo zikhuselayo kwiBhili yamaLungelo, evunyiweyo ngoDisemba 15, 1791. Umbhalo wayo ushwankathela ngokuphawulekayo: "Ibheyile yebheyile ayizukufunwa, okanye intengo egqithisileyo, okanye isohlwayo esigqithisileyo esibekweyo nengaqhelekanga esibekweyo. Okwala magama ambalwa aphumele kwiqumrhu elikhulu lomthetho-siseko ochaphazela phantse zonke iinkalo zomthetho-mthetho-mthetho eMelika. Ukuphembelela kokunga okungundoqo kumandla karhulumente, ukunyanzelisa isimilo solwaphulo-mthetho, ukunyanzeleka, ukulingana, nokuguquguquka kwemilinganiselo yabantu. Kubafundisi, izifundiswa zomthetho-mthetho-siseko, nabafundi bomthetho-omthetho-siseko, kufuneka bahlole ingcaciso yembali, ukucaphulwa kwemithetho, neeziphumo zayo ezisebenzayo kule nkqubo yanamhlanje.

Ukulungisa kusebenza njengesixhobo sokunyanzelisa onke amasebe amathathu karhulumente. Amagunya akanakwenza amanyathelo okukhupha isigwebo achasene neemeko zawo; abatshutshisi abanakusifuna, okanye bamisele abagwebi, izigwebo ezinqumla imida yomgaqo-siseko; kwaye abalawuli abalungisayo abanako ukuvelisa iimeko okanye unyango olulingana nesohlwayo esinenkohlakalo nesohlwayo esingaqhelekanga. Esi sicelo somjikelezo sowesitho senza iSeeth Amendment isisingxibo esiphilayo kumandla karhulumente, lowo uqhubeka evelisa ingxubusho engundoqo nengxoxo kawonke-wonke.

Isiseko Sembali SoMthetho Ohlaziyiweyo Wesibhozo

UMthetho oQhelekileyo wamaNgesi neSibheno saMalungelo 1689

Umthetho wolawulo wesiHluzi wesiXhosa wesiXhosa wavela ngqo kwimbali yamaNgesi, ingakumbi iBhili yamaNgesi yamalungelo onyaka wewaka linamakhulu asibhozo. Olo xwebhu lwavakalisa "ukungafunwa kweBhayile eninzi, okanye iNtloko egqithisileyo; okanye iZisohlwayo zenkohlakalo nezingaqhelekanga eziye zanikelwa. Ilungiselelo lamaNgesi lavela kwizityholo ezichasa uKumkani uJames II, abagwebi bakhe bagweba kabuhlungu kakhulu kwiintshaba zamalungelo ezobupolitika. Ityala likaTitus Oates, owabethwa, wabanjwa entolongweni, nothothotho lwesothotho lwezohlwayo ezitho ezitho zingekho mthethweni zepalamente, wakhokelela ngqo ekumangalweni kwenkohlakalo nesohlwayo engaqhelekanga kwiBhili yamaLungelo.

Abenzi bolawulo lwamaMelika bawuzuza ngokutsha lo mthetho waseNgilani. Umthetho-siseko wobuRhulumani kunye nomgaqo-siseko wephondo wamandulo wawusoloko uqulathe imiqathango efanayo, ubonakalisa isiqinisekiso esibanzi sokuba urhulumente umele asebenze kwimida yokuziphatha xa esohlwaya abemi bakhe. Isindululo saseVirginia samaLungelo ka1776, esayalelwa nguGeorge Mason, salela ngokucacileyo "ukungalawuleki kunye nesohlwayo esingaqhelekanga," umiselo olwathi lwaphembelela ngqo uJames Madison xa wabhalisa oko kuza kuba nguMphengululo wesiXemitha Esibhozo.

Intanda - bulumko Yokukhanyiselwa Notshintsho Oluyityala

Imeko-bume yolu Khanyiselo yabuguqula kakhulu ubunzululwazi boMphetho-mvakaliso weNkcubeko wesibhozo. UCesare Beccaria's 1764 uxwebhu kulwaphulo-mthetho kunye neZisohlwayo [ zangqineka zinempembelelo ekhethekileyo. IBHACRIA yabonisa ukuba injongo yesohlwayo imele ithintelwe kwaye ingabi yiyo ingqeqesho, ingabi yimpindeze okanye inguquko, ingabi yimpindeze okanye ingxwaleko. Wayiphikisa into yokuba isohlwayo ifanele ilinganiswe nolwaphulo-mthetho, kwaye imele isetyenziswe ngokufanelekileyo, ngokomlinganiselo ofanelekileyo, kwaye inguqululwe ngokwemithetho.

Ingcamango yesivumelwano sentlalo kaJohn Locke yazisa abaxhasi besakhelo. Locke waqinisekisa ukuba abantu banikezela kuphela ngenkululeko eyaneleyo ukukhusela kwingozi, hayi ilungelo labo elisisiseko lokuphatha abantu. Le ngcamango yegunya likarhulumente elisikelwe umda phezu kwabamangalelwa bamatyala yaqinisa ingcamango yokuba amandla esizwe okunika ingqwalaselo kufuneka abe nawo imida. Abaxhasi bomGaqo-siseko, abafundiswe kwezi zithethe zentandabulumko, babeqonda ukuba urhulumente onako ukunikela isohlwayo esinenkunkqele esinembu.

Ukwenziwa Kweminxeba Nenkcazelo Yangaphambili

Xa iBhili yamaLungelo eNgqungquthela yokuqala yacebisa ukuba iBhili yamaLungelo ngo1789, isigwebo senkohlakalo nesothutho esingaqhelekanga sabangela impikiswano encinane ngokuthelekisa nezinye izibonelelo. Amazwe amaninzi ayesele eneendlela ezifanayo zokukhusela kwimithetho-siseko yawo, kwaye ibinzana labonwa njengomyalelo ocacileyo wokulwa nomonakalo ombi owenziwe ngezobulungisa. Noko ke, ukupheliswa kolwaphulo-mthetho kwashiya indawo enkulu yokutolika. Kwinkoliso lenkulungwane ye-19, iinkundla zalitolika ngokushwamsinyane, ukusetyenziswa kwalo ukunqanda iindlela ezithile zokusohlwaya ngabomka okanye uburhaba, njengokuzobalula nokutshisa, ukutsha esibondeni, okanye ukurhoxaba uwonke wonke.

INkundla ePhakamileyo yafumana ithuba elilinganiselweyo lokuchaza uHlelulo-Mbetho lweMiphetho-mthetho ngqo de kube yinkulungwane yama-20. Wilkerson v. Utah (1879), iNkundla yacebisa ukuba isohlwayo esibandakanya ukuthuthunjiswa okanye ukufa okungalibalekiyo siza kungqubana nokungalungiswa, kodwa sikulungele ukugwetywa kwemithetho nxamnye neendlela ezifanelekileyo zokubulala. [FLT:] kwi-Remler[[FLT] (1890), iNkuxhasa ukusetyenziswa kwesitulo sombane sombane, ifumanise ukuba asikokuba sisenzanga sisohlwayo sikhobo kwaye singaqhelekanga kuba sicekelwe ngokukhawulezileyo.

Amalungiselelo Aneengcaciso

Ibhedi Egqithiseleyo KaClaus

I-Odmistive Bail Claus e-Ourtive Bail Calaste iyayithintela iinkundla ekumiseleni ibheyile ephezulu kangangokuba iyalikhanyela ngokunempumelelo ithuba lokukhululwa kwetyala. Eli binzana lisebenza kurhulumente wesizwe ngokobuqu kwaye libekwe ngokuchasene namazwe nge-Act Procession Claus of the 1450 Reconsolement. UBail uphumeza injongo esemthethweni yokuqinisekisa ukuba ummangalelwa uvela enkabeni, kodwa akanakusetyenziswa njengesixhobo sokugweba ukuvala ukuvalelwa kwangaphambili okanye ukunyanzela abamangalelwa ukuba bamangalelwe ukuba babe netyala.

Umgangatho wokufumana ukuba ibheyile ingaphezulu kusini na kusini na ibheyile egqithisileyo ebhekiselele kubungakanani obufanelekileyo bokuqinisekisa ukubonakala kommangalelwa ngokufanelekileyo kwimfuno ezifanelekileyo zikarhulumente. Stack v. Boyle (1951), iNkundla ePhakamileyo yabambelela ukuba ibheyile mayingamiswa kumgangatho ophezulu kakhulu kunokuthi ngokufanelekileyo kuqinisekiswe ukubonakala kommangalelwa. Izinto ezinjalo njengobukhulu bolwaphulo-mthetho olubekwa phantsi, imbali yolwaphulo-mthetho yommangalelwa, idibeko lwemali yonke ihambisana noku kukuzimisela. Abagxeki-lwazi baphikisa ukuba inkqubo yebheyili yangoku, ingakumbi imali, isohlwayo ngokunelisayo ngokuvumela abamangali abarhwebi ukuba bakhululwe, xa abasweleyo belindele ukuvavanywa, ukunyuswa kwetyala elininzi lwe-expringxpt propt prodmistssss.

Impahla Eninzi KaClaus

I-Sradfied Fipes Claus ithintela urhulumente ekubekeni intlawulo engalinganiyo netyala elenziweyo. Eli binzana, njenge-Sstadive Bail Clause, lisebenza koorhulumente bomabini besizwe noorhulumente. United States v. Bajakaan [1998], iNkundla ePhaka ePhakamileyo yaseka uvavanyo lokuvavanyanisa iimali ezinxityiweyo ezigqithisileyo. Inkundla yathi ihle ichasene noMpanzi wesi-8 wesinyuko ukuba "igrossly directive proportion" kumbiko lwetyala.

I-Slassive Fine Claus iyasebenza nakwi-astrives Claus ekwindawo ephantsi kwemithetho yabemi, umkhwa odidaniswayo apho urhulumente ethatha khona impahla enxulumene nomsebenzi wolwaphulo-mthetho. Timbs v. Indiana (2010]), iNkundla ePhakamileyo yavumelana ukuba i-Constive Reconf Claus isebenza kurhulumente nakurhulumente wasekuhlaleni ngokufumana uLawulo lwe-Gawula-mvume. Ityala lalibandakanya indoda eyathiwa i-42,000 Land Rover emva kokuba igwetyiwe ngokuthengisa i-heroin encinane. Inkundla yavuma ukuba ukulahleka kwemi kusetyenziswa ngeendlela ezichasene nomgaqo-mthetho, nangona yashiya ukusetyenziswa kwe-Romsbonds.

Isigwebo Esinenkohlakalo Nesoyikekayo SikaClaus

IZigwebo Ezinenkohlakalo nezingaqhelekanga uClaus engowona mGaqo-siseko udityanisiweyo nophicotho lwelungiselelo loMphetho-mdali wesibhozo. Ukutolikwa kwayo kuye kwaguquka ngendlela ephawulekayo ekuhambeni kwexesha, ibonakalisa ukutshintsha kwemilinganiselo yentlalo-ntle yoluntu nokuqonda okunzulu kwengqondo nesidima somntu. INkundla ePhakamileyo ichaza umgaqo okhokelayo: intsingiselo yayo esuka ku-"iNkqukumbelo olucacileyo lwesidima oluphawula inkqubela-phambili yoluntu." Lo mlinganiselo, wokuqala obhengezwe Trop v. Dulles[ [1988]), uyaqhubeka ukubumba intsingiselo yalecutha uhlazi olu-Height Rempletencelvestivence.

Eli binzana likwalela isohlwayo esizalwa singenabundlobongela, esinjengentuthumbo okanye ukufa okuhlala kuhleli. Kwakhona liyasilela isohlwayo esilinganayo nolwaphulo-mthetho, elithetha ukuba isigwebo kufuneka sibe nolwalamano olufanelekileyo nobukhulu bolwaphulo-mthetho kunye nokulahlwa kwetyala. Ngaphezu koko, ibinzana eligweba isohlwayo esisesikweni okanye esinetyala ekusetyenzisweni kwaso, kwaye lifuna ukuba isohlwayo sisebenze iinjongo ezisemthethweni zobugqwetha, isohlwayo, ukuvala ityala, ukubuyiselwa kwetyala, kunye nokubuyiselwa komntu esisusiweyo.

Iimpawu zeNkundla ePhakamileyo

Ityala lokufa kunye neSizakhelo soMsebenzi weNtloko

Ukusetyenziswa kweSigqibo soLawulo-Mbetho sesibhozo kwisohlwayo sentambo yentambo kumele eyona ngquzulwano yemfundiso ebanzi nedidaniswayo kulo mmandla. Furman v. Georgia [19972], iNkundla ePhakamileyo yasivala ngokuphumelelayo isigwebo sesigwebo sokufa eUnited States. Inkundla yeNkundla yaxhasa ngoluvo lwayo lolwahlukeneyo olusithoba, ngokucazululwa kwesigwebo sokufa, njengoko sisenziwa, yasichasa umgaqo wesiXhobelo ngenxa yokuba ukwenziwa kwayo kwakungekho mthethweni, kusenziwa ngokugqwetha. USobhisholo odumileyo wathelekisa ukufumana isigwebo sokufa ku-"impomposiso."..

Ukusabela uFurman [[FLT: 1] wakhawuleza. Amazwe amaninzi amisela imimiselo emitsha yesohlwayo sentambo elungiselelwe ukucombulula iziphene zomgaqo-siseko ezicaciswe yiNkundla. Le mimiselo mitsha idla ngokuthatha enye yeefomu ezimbini: imiyalelo enyanzelisayo yesohlwayo sokufa efuna isohlwayo sentambo kwityala elithile, okanye imithetho elawulayo eyanika amaqumrhu athe ngqo ekwakheni kwesohlwayo kunye nomthetho wokugweba. [ip] Gregb v. Georgia [7], iNkundla ephakamileyo ixhasa umthetho we-Georgia, ukufumana ukuba ijekelezelela ityala kwaye iqinisekisa izigwebo ezimelelweyo. Inkundla nazo ezithiweyo ezilwayo ngezo kumgangatho wolawulo loMntla noMkhosi weNtshona Koloni.

Isigqibo samisa inkqubo yesohlwayo sentambo ehlala ikhona namhlanje. Phantsi kwesi siseko, iimeko kufuneka zinikezele kwiimvavanyo ezizinzileyo apho ukuziva ityala nokugwetywa kusenzeka ngokwahlukileyo, siqinisekisa ukuba amacandelo aqwalasela iimeko kunye nobungqina obudityanisiweyo, kwaye amisele uhlolo olunentsingiselo. INkundla igxininisa ukuba isohlwayo sokufa sigcinelwe abona tyala abangalunganga kakhulu kunye nezenzo ezimbi kakhulu, umgaqo oye wayila kamva.

Imiqathango Efuzisela Isohlwayo Esiyintloko

Kusukela , iNkundla ePhakamileyo imisele imivalo emininzi emiselweyo ekwalelayo isohlwayo sokufa kwiindidi ezithile zabaphuli-mthetho. Attins v. Virginia (2002], iNkundla yathi ukubulala abantu abaneziphene zengqondo kuhlambela umphetho wesiXhombo. Ukubhala ngoninzi, uMgwebi uJohn Paul Stevens wakhankanya imilinganiselo ecacileyo yesidima, ekwakungakho inani elandayo lamanani okumiswa kwemithetho ekwakugwetywayo okugwetywayo kunye nemibutho yempilo yengqondo ephuculwe kakhulu. INkundla yaqiqa iqikelelwlo ukuba abantu abaneziphene zengqondo eziphukileyo baye baphelelwa yi-delpt projective.

-Roper v. Simmons (2005], iNkundla yandisa le ngcamango epheleleyo kubantwana abaphuli-mthetho, ibambe ukuba ukubulala abantu ababengaphantsi kweminyaka eli-18 ngexesha lolwaphulo-mthetho lwabo kuchasene noMphetho-mthetho we-Eighth. INkundla yagxininisa ukuba abantwana abakwishumi elivisayo banokuchatshazelwa ngokugqibeleleyo kunokwenzeka kulutsha ngenxa yoxinzelelo lontanga, ukuchanabeka koontanga, nophawu olukhulayo. Isigqibo esingaphaya kwemithetho ebekwe phantsi kweshumi elinesibhozo [[FLT]] v. Keykickyn[] [19989], evumele ukubulawa kwabantu abadala abalishumi elineshumi elinesixhenxe leminyaka abaphaka-abasebenzi bezomthetho. Umthetho ka-Osenzilonke wavelisa uluvo olungolwazi olungokwenzululwazi ngolwazi oluphezulu oluphezulu lweNkuphuhliswayo, uluvo olubonisa uphando lweNkugqibelelo lweNkuqulo-Ay.

NOMXHOLO-MBE]. Florida (2014, iNkundla yaqhubeka icombulula i-Atkins isakhiwo sesiseko, esibamba ukuba irejista ayinakusebenzisa i-IQ igophe eliqinileyo ukugqiba ukungasebenzi kwengqiqo kwinjongo yesohlwayo sokufa. Inkundla igxininisa ukuba iinkcazelo zezenkcubeko zifuna ukuqwalaselwa kokubini ukusebenza nokuziphatha okulungelelanisayo, kwaye intembelo eqinileyo ayiphumeleli ukuphendula imposiso esezantsi yokulinganisa ekwi-IQ uvavanyo. UJasticedy wabhala ukuba isiH IsiH Isindululo seSihlalo sephepha-mvume sokulungisa i-mthetho "Requeress'iiiiiiced'iiiiced comforence yezo zezamayeza."

Ukugwetywa nokukhutshwa

Umgaqo wokwabelana koMphetho-mda wesi-8 (1980), iNkundla ixhasa isigwebo sobomi kunye nesigwebo eside sentolongo, nangona iNkundla ibinoxanduva oluphezulu kwisigwebo somthetho kumatyala angengawo angomantloko. Rummel v. E-Estelle [1980], iNkundla yaxhasa isigwebo sobomi kunye nethuba lokunikwa isigwebo esiphantsi kwe-paratolitististiki eTexas ekwahlulele ukukhohla kwetyala okumalunga nama-R430. Inkundla yaqiqa ukuba iphumele izilangazelelo ezisemthethweni ekunqandelweni kwemisweni nasekuzingeni nasekucapeficeni kwanokunikwa kwendlela yokucaciswa.

Noko ke, Sulm v. [193], iNkundla yawisa isigwebo sobomi ngaphandle kokunyanzeleka kwesigwebo sokudlulisa uvavanyo olubi phantsi komthetho we-South Dakota. INkundla yahlula [ Rumlmel emhlabeni apho ummangalelwa uSholem wayengenako ukuvuma ukuba uphazamiso lobomi, yenza isigwebo esilinganayo sobomi ngaphandle kokukhululwa kwasekuqaleni. IJaji enkulu i-Burlger i-emodelidingsstion i-oacert ingth carcement, ityala, ityala elithe kratya, kunye nezinye iityala.

INkundla yaphinda yaphinda yathetha ngomlinganiselo wolungelelwano ku uMichigan v. (1991]], apho yaxhasa isigwebo sobomi esinyanzelekileyo ngaphandle kokukhupha igalelo lokufumana i-cocaine. IJaji Antonin Scalia imbono encinci yoluvo lwamacandelo ahlukeneyo ithathe imbono e-Eleighth Amement, iphikisa ukuba iSigwebo esinenkohlakalo neSigwebo esingaqhelekanga sika-Clausle asiqulathanga siqinisekiso somlinganiselo jikelele sesigwebo sentolongo. Ngoko ke, iJaji Anthony Kennedy iyavuma ukuba "umlinganiselo omncinane wokwahlulayo" usebenza kwimiqathango-okanye ne "umGantroso-omGastrivel-o-om, kwaye "unyaka-8] ithetha ukuba i-edededentingth Reccesssss shorty i-mous adieved systrived , i-money'ify'iviced

Ku iphakamisa izigwebo zeminyaka engama-25 kubomi obubekwe phantsi kweKhalifoniya. (2003) kunye [[FTL:2] ne-'FT] Lockyr v.Andrade [2003], iNkundla yaphakamisa izigwebo zeminyaka engama-25 kubomi obubekwe phantsi kweKhalifoniya, nangona iphosa umthetho wesithathu womthetho wolwaphulo-mthetho oluncinci. Ezi zigqibo zigqibo zibonisa ukuba "gross difficential" umgangatho osuka [ kwaye yafumana ukuba izigwebo, nangona zinzima, azizange zaphulanga umthetho wesibhozo ogqithisiweyo wolwaphulo-mthetho. Ezi zigqibo ezizi. Ezi zimisela ukunikezelwa kwemiqatha kwiimeko zetyala.

Iinkqubo zekhompyutha zexesha elizayo kunye neeNkxwaba

Iimeko Zentolongo Nentlalo - ntle Yokuvalelwa

ISihlaziyiso sesibhozo simisela iimfuno zokuvuma amabanjwa ukuba afumane iimfuno zokuvalelwa. Estelle v. Gamble [1976], iNkundla Ephakamileyo yathi ukungazikhathaleli ngesiquphe iimfuno ezinzulu zempilo zamabanjwa kungumlinganiselo wengqeqesho yenkohlakalo nengaqhelekanga. Lo mlinganiselo ufuna amabanjwa ukuba abonise ukuba imeko yawo yempilo inzulu kwaye amagosa entolongo asebenza ngokungenamdla. UEstellel umgangatho obalulekileyo wezonyango unyuselwe kwimpilo engokwasengqondweni, ukukhuselwa ugonyamelo, kunye nokuyimfuneko ukubonisa ukuba imeko yokutya, ikhuselwa, kunye nokutya.

"Indlu yaseburhulumenteni v. Brennan [1994], iNkundla yacacisa umgangatho wokungakhathali wangamabomu kumongo wokhuseleko lwamabanjwa. Ityala lalibandakanya ibhampa elibotshelelweyo elibethwe lize lidlwengulwe emva kokuba libekwe kwingingqi yentolongo yorhulumente. Inkundla yathi igosa lentolongo lisebenza ngemposiso ukuba umlawuli uyakwazi ukuba umngcipheko onzulu wobungozi obunzima kwaye angakwazi ukuthabatha imilinganiselo esengqiqweni yokubeka umngcipheko. Isigqibo sala umgaqo wokungamela imilinganiselo ecacileyo, endaweni yokokuba amagosa aphantsi kolwazi lomngcipheko, kodwa kwakhona saqonda ukuba ulwazi olunjalo lunokuqondwa kwingozi ecacileyo.

Iimeko zokuvalelwa kwiintolongo zaseMerika ziyaqhubeka zisenza i-Aleight IsiHlaliso seMpanzi-mda. Iingxaki ziquka ukugxadaza, ukungakhathalelwa kwempilo yezamayeza neyomzekeliso, ukuchanabeka kumaqondo obushushu agqithisileyo, iimeko zokuhlala okungacocekanga, kunye nokungondleki komzimba. Brown v. Plata[ [2011], iNkuNkundla ePhakamileyo ixhasa umyalelo wenkundla esezantsi ofuna ukuba iCalifornia inciphise abemi bayo basentolongo ukuze bathethe ngokusemgangathweni ukungalungele ukuhlangabezana nonyango kunye nokunyanyelwa kwempilo. UJaji Kennedy wavuma ukuba iimeko ezingaphezulu zive zive zive zibangele iintlungu ezingeyo nokufa kwamabanjwa amaninzi" kwaye urhulumente wahluleka ukunikela inkathalo-omGwaral.

Ukuvalelwa Kwesithukuthezi Nengozi Yengqondo

Ukusetyenziswa kwendlu yokuhlala yodwa, okwaziwa ngokuba kukungavunyelwa, kuye kwavela njengembambano ephambili yokuLandlwa kweMiphetho-Mpatho-mda esibhozo kwiminyaka yakutshanje. Ukwahlukaniswa okungaphezulu kubandakanya ukukhokelwa kwamabanjwa kwiiseli ezincinane kangangeeyure ezingama-22 ukuya kwezingama-24 ngosuku ngaphandle kokunxibelelana nabantu, iinkqubo ezisikelwe umda, kunye nempembelelo encinane yemekobume. Uphando luye lwachaza umonakalo ophawulekayo ongokwengqondo wokuvalelwa uwedwa okuqhubekayo, kuquka inkxalabo, udandatheko, uxinezeleko, i-acinezero, i-acision, ukuxina kwengqondo, kunye nomngcipheko ongakumbi wokuzibulala.

Iinkundla ezisezantsi ziye zafikelela kwizigqibo ezahlukahlukeneyo zokuba ngaba ukuvalelwa wedwa kuchasene noMphetho-mvandedwa wesi-8. Ezinye iinkundla ziye zathi ukuzihlukanisa okuqhubekayo ngaphandle kokhuseleko oluqhelekileyo okanye ukujongwa okufanelekileyo kwempilo yengqondo kusisohlwayo esinenkohlakalo nesingaqhelekanga. Ezinye ziye zazibekela abalawuli bentolongo isigwebo esingemfuneko yokubekwa kwesohlwayo okanye ukhuseleko. INkundla ePhakamileyo ayikhange ithethe ngqo ngokubiwa komgaqo-siseko wokuvalelwa okunzima, nangona iJaji Kennedy iye yakhupha ingxelo kwi- Davis v. [2010] [20] ivakalisa inkxabisile ngoqheliso lokuqhelisa nokucebisa ukuba "uphando olukhulayo olunzima malunga nomonakalo olunzima noludla ngokubanzileyo" ukusuka ekuvalweni kwe-omatiko-siseko somthetho-siseko somthetho-siseko somthetho-siseko.

Iimeko ezininzi ziye zasebenzisa utshintsho ukunciphisa ukusetyenziswa kokuvalelwa wedwa, kuquka imida yexesha ekubekeni izithuba, ulwandiso lweenkqubo kumabanjwa ahlulwe ngokweendlela zoqeqesho, kunye nezinye iindlela zoqeqesho. Olu tshintsho lubonisa ulwamkelo olukhulayo lokuba ulwahlukana olugqithisileyo lungqubana nemilinganiselo egqwethekileyo ye-Eighth Amendmentment, njengokuba imida yemithetho-siseko ingapheliswanga.

Ubomi Bemitsha - ntliziyo Obungenamarhanisi

Ukusetyenziswa kweSigqibo soHlabathi soHlabathi ekugwetyweni kolutsha kumele enye yezona nkqubela-phambili zibalulekileyo kwinkqubo yolwaphulo-mthetho yanamhlanje. Graham v. Florida (2010), iNkundla ePhakamileyo yathi ukugweba amatyala aselula ahlala evalelwe ubomi ngaphandle kwesohlwayo sokungabikho kwemvume engekho mthethweni kumele ukuba agwetyelwe amatyala angeyo. Inkundla yaqonda ukuba amatyala angeyongozi ahlazekile kumgangatho wesi-8h Amend. Inkundla yaqonda ukuba amatyala acuthe nangaphezulu abantu abadala kunye nobuchule bokubuyisela umva, kwaye isigwebo sobomi esingekhona sonyanzelo sithetha isohlwayo esiqatha esibangela ukuba isohlwayo esiqatha.

Kwiminyaka emibini kamva, imiller v. Alabama (202), iNkundla yandisa esi sizathu kubaphuli-mthetho abancinane, ibambe izigwebo ezinyanzelisayo zokubulala abatsha ngaphandle kwe-odoli, isithi isigwebo sobomi obungekho mgangathweni solutsha saphula iSigqibo seNkundla sesibhozo. INkundla ayizange igqibelele ngokusisigxina ibhari-ngaphandle kwesigwebo sobomi ngaphandle kweso sigwebo solwaphulo-mthetho, kodwa ifuna ukuba iinkundla ziqwalasele ubudala, imvelaphi, kunye neemeko zomntu ngamnye phambi kokuba zifake isigwebo. Isigqibo sagxininisa ukuba "a abantwana bahluke ngokusemthethweni kubantu abadala ngenxa yesigwebo" kwaye izicwangciso ezinyanzelwayo ezithi zithintela ukuqwala ukuqwala kwezimeko ezingo zomntu ngamnye ezingo zolwaphulo-mthetho.

ifuna ukuba amaziko anikezele ukuva kolutsha oluye lwafumana izigwebo eziyimfuneko zobomi ngaphandle komgama ophezulu. (20) (2016, iNkundla yathi [[FLT:]] Miller [[FLT: 3]] isebenzisa umthetho womGaqo-siseko osezantsi, ufuna ukuba anikezele ukuva okungacaciyo kolutsha oluye lwafumana izigwebo eziyimfuneko zobomi- ngaphandle kweparate. Isigqibo savula ucango lwamawaka eendodeni ukukhangela i-empepho. [[FLT: 4,]]

Imithombo Evela Kuwo Ukuze Ufundisiso Olungakumbi

Abo bafuna ukuqinisa ukuqonda kwabo iSindululo soLawulo oluKhulu, i-Cuffision Ancodition egcinwe yiThala leencwadi leeKhosare linikela uhlalutyo olubanzi lwemizekelo yeNkundla ePhakamileyo. [] iSikolo soLwelo loLwazi eCornell Law [[] [Izibonelelo]] zinika ushwankathelo olufikelelekayo lwemfundiso eyiSendex seSinyuko. [[FLT]] umxholo wembali, i-Outress Online[[FLT:] uquka imithombo enxulumene nokulungisa nokukhutshwa kwe-Rpowe-RGreast . [FT] kunye nenkqubo yomgaqo-omatisolji ye-J]

Isiphelo: UMthetho - siseko WesiHlayisholo WeeEvolution Oqhubeka

IsiHlazo-Mbetho sesibhozo sisengumthetho-siseko onamandla nophikiswayo. Umbhalo waso, owabhaliswa ngo-1789, uyaqhubeka uthetha kwimibuzo yangoku malunga nemida yegunya lesohlwayo kwibutho lolawulo-moya. Inkcubeko ye-antempment ilele kwi-demokhrasi yayo jikelele, evumela iinkundla ukuba zisebenzise imigaqo yazo kwiimeko ezintsha zize ziqukelele ukuqondwa kwesidima somntu, ingozi yengqondo, kunye nendlela yokulungisa esebenzayo.

Ingqiqo engundoqo yeSihlaziyo sesibhozo yeyokuba isohlwayo kufuneka sifeze iinjongo ezisemthethweni kwaye simele sihlonele uluntu lwabo bohlwaywa kwananjengoko lumele lubaphendulisa ngehambo yabo. Le ngqiqo iye yaphembelela ukupheliswa kweendlela zobundlobongela, ukuvunywa kwemivalo yokubulawa kwesohlwayo epheleleyo kubantu ababuthathaka, ukuphuhliswa kwemigaqo-siseko yeemeko zasentolongweni, nemiqathango evelayo kwizigwebo ezigqithisileyo zolwaphulo-mthetho zabancinane.

Kubafundisi-mfundo abafundisa umthetho womGaqo-siseko, iSiHendezelo seMithetho esibhozo sinikela uhlolisiso olunzulu ngendlela intsingiselo yomGaqo-siseko eguquka ngayo ngokunxibelelana kokubhaliweyo, imizekelo, imilinganiselo yoluntu, nolwazi olusisiseko. Kubafundi, le nguquko iphakamisa imibuzo esisiseko ngokusesikweni, ukulingana, kunye nemilinganiselo yamandla karhulumente. Kwanakubemi, iSindululo-Ath Amendmentality simela ukuzinikela komgaqo-siseko kwisigqibo sokuba kwanabo baye bachasa eyona migaqo yebutho labantu esisiseko bagcina ingunolwazi olusisiseko lokuphathwa ngoluntu kunye nesidima esisisiseko.

Njengoko ibutho labantu baseMerika liqhubeka liphikisana ngokuguqulwa komthetho wolwaphulo-mthetho, isigwebo sokufa, ukubanjwa kwabantu abaninzi, nokuphathwa kwabantu abavalelweyo, ngokungathandabuzekiyo uMphengululo wesibhozo uya kuhlala ukho phakathi kwezi ngxubusho. Ilifa lalo elihlala lihleli ngumgaqo wokuba ibutho elisesikweni limele libambelele kwimilinganiselo ephakamileyo xa lisebenzisa amandla aphezulu okusohlwaya, nokuba umlinganiselo wokuzinikela kwesizwe kumalungelo abantu yindlela elibaphatha ngayo abo bangqubanileyo kwimithetho yalo.