Imfundiso yolongamo olubini ime njengenye yemigaqo ephambili kodwa enempikiswano kumgaqo wolwaphulo-mthetho lwaseMelika. Iqinisekisa ukuba akukho mntu "uphantsi kolwaphulo-mthetho olubini" oza kubekwa kabini kwingozi yobomi okanye ilungu. Ngokuvumela izinto ezilawulayo ezizimeleyo ezikhoyo kunye norhulumente oqhelekileyo. Ngokubeka ityala lomntu omnye ngenxa yehambo efanayo, le mfundiso imisela ngqo imida yokhuseleko oluphindiweyo. Ukuqonda isiseko sayo, indaleko yembali, kunye neziphumo ezisebenzayo ziyimfuneko kuye nawuphi na umntu ofunda umthetho we-U.

Isiseko Sokhuseleko Olubini

IsiHlaliso seNkqubela-mva weNhlanu ka-Claus weMicimbi-mbini ka-Claus wenzelwe ukukhusela abantu ekuhlukunyezweni, kwiindleko, nasekubandezelweni ngokweemvakalelo ngenxa yetyala elifanayo. Sibophelele ityala lesibini emva kokuba uthethelelwe okanye ulweyiselo, kwaye sithintela isohlwayo esininzi ngenxa yetyala elifanayo. Oku kukhusela kungundoqo kummiselo waseMelika wokuzibophelela kwityala lokugqibela nokusesikweni.

Kanti igalelo aliphelelanga. INkundla ePhakamileyo isoloko iqonda ukuba ukhuseleko olubini lusebenza kuphela kwi-"i-"i-compul". Xa oorhulumente ababini abahlukeneyo benegunya elizimeleyo lokuchaza nokubohlwaya ihambo yolwaphulo-mthetho, ngamnye unokusebenzisa amandla akhe ngaphandle kokwaphula ityala lomnye. Lo mgaqo, owaziwa njengemfundiso ephindiweyo yolawulo, uvumela ukutshutshiswa ngokulandelelanayo ngabalawuli abahlukeneyo ukwenzela isenzo esifanayo.

Isiseko Esisemthethweni Semfundiso Yolongamo Lomanyano

Le mfundiso idibeneyo yolongamo isekelwe kwisiseko esisisiseko: umlawuli ngamnye ufumana igunya lakhe kumthombo owahlukileyo. Urhulumente worhulumente ufumana amandla akhe kumGaqo-siseko wase-U.S., ngoxa urhulumente ngamnye efumana amandla akhe kumgaqo-siseko wakhe wezwe nakumandla alo amapolisa azalwa nawo. Ngenxa yokuba igunya lawo lahlukile, ukutshutshiswa ngumntu omnye akukuthinteli ukutshutshiswa ngomnye, kwanokuba zombini zisekelwe kwihambo efanayo.

Inkundla ePhakamileyo yachaza ngokucacileyo oku kuqiqa kwiUnited States v. Lanza (1922): "Isi senzo esigwetywa njengolwaphulo-mthetho ngabo bobabini abantu besizwe kunye noorhulumente sisenzo esichasene noxolo nesidima sabo bobabini, kwaye sinokusohlwaywa yiyo nganye. Inkundla yagxininisa ukuba igalelo elibini alithinteli ulawulo olubini olwahlukileyo kwityala ngalinye, ngenxa yokuba "offenes" luchasiwe `kunye nxamnye norhulumente worhulumente worhulumente, omnye ngokuchasene norhulumente.

Imeko engokwembali Nezinto Ezingundoqo

Isiseko: Inkulungwane Ye - 19

Imvelaphi yemfundiso idlulela kumthetho worhulumente norhulumente ngaphandle kokwaphula ubungozi obuphindwe kabini. Le ngcamango yafumana ulwahlulo olungakumbi kwi Fox v. Ohio (1847), iNkundla yacebisa ukuba isenzo esifanayo singasohlwaywa phantsi komthetho worhulumente nowaseluntwini, ngaphandle kokwaphula umthetho osemthethweni ongowona umbini. Le ngcamango yafumana ulwahlulo olungakumbi kwi Mootre v. Illinois[[ [1852], apho iNkukholelwa ukuba urhulumente ungenza ulwaphulo-mthetho osemthethweni, kuba urhulumente babenokwaphula umthetho ongowahlukeneyo, ngenxa yokuba oorhulumente ababini babene "656" kwaye bahlukene".

La matyala okuqala ayebonisa isakhiwo somGaqo-siseko seUnited States, apho urhulumente kunye norhulumente wamazwe abelanayo. Ugcino lweSihlalo soMthambeko seTenth kumagunya anganikwanga urhulumente wesizwe, kwaye omabini amanqanaba karhulumente abeke imithetho emininzi efanayo kususela ekuphangweni ebhankini ukuya ekuthengisweni kweziyobisi ukuya kulwaphulo-mthetho lwemipu.

Umzekelo welizwe: United States v. Lanza (1922)

ULanza uhlala engumzekelo wesiseko wale mihla. Ummangalelwa wagwetywa kwinkundla yesizwe ngenxa yokwaphula umthetho weSizwe, kwaye wagwetywa kwinkundla yenkundla yezomthetho ngenxa yesenzo esifanayo(-manufectigration), ehambisa, esela utywala. INkundla Ephakamileyo ixhasa amatyala aphindwe kabini, ibambe ukuba oorhulumente angooyena mphathi bahlukeneyo kwaye ityala eliphindwe kabini alizange livale ityala lesibini. IJaji uWilliam Howard Taft wabhala ukuba "offensis phantsi kwemithetho yeUnited States naphantsi kwemithetho yesizwe ingoodwa, kwaye isohlwaywe ngokwahlukeneyo."

I-Dictrine yangoku: Ggueg v. United States (2029)

Gguedge v. United States, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yaqinisekisa imfundiso ephindiweyo yolongamo ngovoti 7. UTerance Gamble wagwetywa kwinkundla yephondo lase-Alabama ngenxa yokuba nemipu njengefelo, kwaye emva koko wamangalelwa ngurhulumente ngenxa yehambo efanayo. Waphikisa ukuba le mfundiso mayiphendulwe, kodwa iNkundla yalile, igqiba kwelokuba le mfundiso imiselwe "iqinile" kwaye iBhunga leyayayayayayayayayayame kulo phantse iinkulungwane ezimbini. Uluvo lukaSamuel Alito lwagxininisa ukuba ulwaphulo-mthetho oluphindiweyo lwaluqondwa ngexesha lokusekwa kwayo.

Uphando Lwemfundiso Eqheliselwayo

Ukutshutshiswa Okuninzi Neziphumo Ezininzi

Owona mphumela usebenzayo wemfundiso yolongamo lwamabini kukuba umntu usenokujamelana neemvavanyo ezilandelelanayo kwinkundla yorhulumente neyaserhulumenteni ukwenzela isenzo esinye. Oku kunokukhokelela kwizigwebo eziqatha ngakumbi, njengoko zombini izilawuli zisenokukhupha isohlwayo sokwahlukana. Umzekelo, umntu ogwetywe ngetyala leziyobisi kwinkundla yelizwana kamva usenokugwetywa ngetyala elifanayo leziyobisi kwinkundla yephondo, ejamelene nesigwebo esitsha sentolongo esiqala emva kokuba isigwebo sikarhulumente siphelile.

Urhulumente okanye urhulumente usenokugqiba kwelokuba azizise izityholo zakhe, maxa wambi kwiminyaka kamva, kuxhomekeke kwiimeko ezifanelekileyo nakwiimeko eziphambili zomtshutshisi.

Ubulumko bomtshutshisi kunye nomanyano lwe-"Treaty"

Le mfundiso ikwanika abatshutshisi amandla okuba babandakanyeke koko maxa wambi kubizwa ngokuba yi-"dentical conist""--ukukhetha ifolom enika eyona mithetho ilungileyo okanye encinci. Abatshutshisi bomkhosi basenokungena ukuba ityala likarhulumente liphumele kwisigwebo esilula, okanye ukuba ityala likarhulumente aliphumeleli ngenxa yemithetho ecacileyo. Ngokufanayo, abatshutshisi bakarhulumente bangaqhubeka emva kwe-areverse ukuba bakholelwa ukuba umthetho karhulumente unika ithuba elingcono lokuthembeka.

Oku kuqiqa kuye kwafumana ugxeko olubukhali kumagunya enkululeko yabemi, aphikisa ngelithi imfundiso ephindiweyo yolawulo ijongela phantsi isiphelo esicetywa yiVinic Jeopardy Claus. Abahlalutyi bathi ivumela urhulumente ukuba "alume omabini aphu" kwaye abamangalelwa bancine kakhulu kwaye bahlawuliswe ngeendleko ezininzi.

Ukusetyenziswa Kolongamo Lwesizwe Noorhulumente Abanenkxalabo

Imfundiso yolongamo olubini ayiphelelanga kulwalamano lwesizwe nolwesizwe. INkundla ePhakamileyo ikwayisebenzise kurhulumente bamaMelika aseMdabi nakoorhulumente belizwe base-U.S. abanjengePuerto Rico kunye neSithili saseColumbia. United States v. Wheeler [1988], iNkundla ikholelwa ukuba uhlanga lwamaIndiya lungamangalelana ngetyala lolwaphulo-mthetho kunye norhulumente wesizwe lungagweba ngenxa yesenzo esinye, ngenxa yokuba ulawulo lwesizwe lwalungu "herent" kwaye lwahlulwe ligunya lorhulumente. Ngokufanayo, oorhulumente bathathwa njengabalawuli abahlukeneyo ngeenjongo eziphindidibini, ixesha elide njengoko igunya labo lifumaneka kwiBhunga-Bhunga-okhesase-masipala kwimimandla.

Ukugxekwa Nobuqhetseba

Ukhuseleko Lokwenzakalisa Ngokuphindwe Kabini

Okona kugxekwa kusisiseko kwemfundiso yolawulo olubini kukuthi iphikisana ngqo nolwimi olucacileyo kunye nenjongo ye-Jeopardy Claus ephindwe kabini. Ibinzana likhusela ekubekweni `kwingozi' ukwenzela "ukunganyaniseki". Abahlalutyi bathi xa umntu emangalelwa kabini ngenxa yehambo efanayo, ngokungathandabuzekiyo aye abekwa esichengeni kabini/na ukuba la maqela mabini aqulukileyo ahlukene ngokusemthethweni. Le mfundiso bathi, iphakamisa isimo sento enye.

IJaji uRuth Bader Ginsburg, ephikisanayo , ichaza le mbono ngamandla: "Imfundiso edibeneyo-ulawulo luyinto eshiywe kwimbali ebhaliweyo kwintsomi -"ukuthi izikhulu ezahlulayo ngabantu abahlukeneyo, kwaye ukunxaxha omnye akusisoso sona omnye." Waphikisa ngelithi le mfundiso mayibethwe ngokuba ivumela urhulumente aphephe ityala eliphindiweyo ngesizathu esilula sokuba nomtshutshisi ababini.

Impembelelo Engacazululekiyo Kuluntu Olungangqubaniyo

Uphando lwezobupolitika lubonisa ukuba amatyala amabini achaphazela ngokungenakuthelekiswa nanto ubuhlanga kunye nobuhlanga obuncinane, ingakumbi abamangalelwa abamnyama nabamaNalatini. Urhulumente wesizwe usoloko efuna ukuchotshelwa izityholo emva kokuchotshelwa kwamatyala karhulumente aphezulu abandakanya ukuziphatha okubi kwamapolisa, amatyala eziyobisi, kunye nezixhobo zokubulala iziyobisi, `aaa apho ucalucalucalulo lobuhlanga ekunyanzelweni komthetho lubhalwe kakuhle. Oku kuye kwakhokelela ekubeni imfundiso ethetha ngokungalingani kwenkqubo ngokuvumela urhulumente ukuba "iiiiityala" kunye nezigwebo nesigwebo.

Ngaphezu koko, abamangalelwa abangenazo izibonelelo ezimandla basenokungakwazi ukunyusa ukhuselo olusebenzayo kwiingingqi ezininzi. Indleko yokuqesha amaqela ahlukeneyo asemthethweni, ukuququzelela phakathi kweenkundla, kunye nokungaphicothi-guquki kwengqondo kwetyala eliphindaphindiweyo kubangela umthwalo onzima onzima kumahlwempu.

Ukungaguquguquki Kwimigaqo Karhulumente Engamanyaniyo

Bambi abaphengululi baye bachaza ukungavisisani okucacileyo: imfundiso yolongamo edibeneyo ichaza amagunya ahlukeneyo ngeenjongo eziphindwe kabini, ukanti uMphetho-mbombongo weshumi elinesibhozo ngokuqhelekileyo uvala iimfanelo kwiimeko zabantu abazimeleyo kwinkundla yelifa lesizwe. Ukuba amarhulumente angowona anegunya, impikiswano iyaqhubeka, afanele afanele abekwe phantsi kwemigwebi yorhulumente. Le mfundiso ibonakala ikhetha yaye ikhetha xa kuthe kwavela imicimbi yolawulo, ilungiselela ukungenelwa komtshutshisi kunokuba kusetyenzisi semigaqo-siseko.

Uphuhliso lwangoku kunye nokunyuswa kwangoku

Iphepha- [[FLT: 0] Iphepha lobubanzi [[FLT: 1]

Ukusukela kwisigqibo seNkundla Ephakamileyo yowama-2019 ingxubusho ye-, imfundiso edityanisiweyo yolawulo ihlala iqinile. Iinkundla ezisezantsi ziyaqhubeka ziyisebenzisa kumacala amaninzi emongo . ukusuka ekuthutheni kweziyobisi ukuya ekubekeni irhafu kumacala amalungelo abantu. Noko ke, uluvo lungavisisani nolwazi oluqhubekayo. Abanye abahlalutyisi bemithetho baye bakhuthaza iBhunga ukuba imigaqo ilungelelanise imfundiso ngomthetho, bephikisa ukuba i-Dicendropu Yeardia Claus ifanele iqondwe ukuba ichazwe ngokulandelelanayo ukuba ityala ityala ekwayo yemiqatha yezenzo zamalungelo akhoyo.

Ngenxa yoko, amazwana ambalwa aye amisela imithetho ethintela ukutshutshiswa kwetyala emva kwetyala elinye likarhulumente, kodwa le mithetho inqabile yaye ayiqinisekanga ukuba ikho phantsi komgaqo - siseko kaClaus osisiSupremacy. Umthetho womanyano uya kufuneka ukuze kufikelelwe utshintsho olucwangcisiweyo.

Imfundiso Engqinelanayo

Umthetho wale mihla wolwaphulo-mthetho usoloko uhambelana nolawulo lwamagunya orhulumente. IBhunga liye layenza yaphulwa imisebenzi emininzi ngokwesithethe eyayiliphondo elikhethekileyo lamazwe, njengokuphanga, ukuhlasela, nokubulalana . "Lonto idibene norhwebo lwamazwe ahlukeneyo." Oku kubandakanya intsingiselo, kunye nemfundiso edibeneyo yolawulo, kuthetha ukuba naluphi na ulwaphulo-mthetho olunzulu ngoku lungamangalelwa kabini. Isiphumo sinkqubo apho isisongelo sokutshutshisa okumabini similisela abamangalelwa abaninzi.

Ukuthelekiswa Kwamazwe Ngamazwe

Ngamanye amazwe ambalwa avumela ukutshutshiswa ngokulandelelanayo ngemiqathango eyahlukeneyo yehambo efanayo. Isixokelelwano sorhulumente esininzi, kuquka iJamani, iKhanada, kunye ne-Australia, sisebenzisa umthetho omnye we-odoli: Xa umntu eye wazama ukwenza into, akanakuphinda azame ukwenza isenzo esifanayo ngomnye urhulumente kwilizwe elinye. I-United States ime yodwa phakathi kwamazwe aqhelekileyo abambelele kwimfundiso engqubanayo nolawulo oluphindiweyo. Oku kunyukele kukhokelela ezinye iingcali zomthetho wamazwe ngamazwe onke ukucebisa ukuba iUnited States iphinde ijonge indlela yayo yokusebenzisana namalungelo abantu anamhlanje, nto leyo edla ngokunqanda ukungxwelethwa ngokuphindwe kabini kuwo onke amanqanaba karhulumente.

Ukunyamekela Oogqirha Abasemthethweni

Ukhuselo lwezixhobo ze-athorney

Amagqwetha okhuselo kufuneka acebise abaxhasi ngetyala elibini elinokubakho kumatyala angaphambili. Ukuba umxhasi ubekwe ityala enkundleni yetyala, kufuneka ahlole ukuba izityholo zikarhulumente zinokwenzeka kusini na, ukuba kunjalo, ukuba ngaba kukho amanyathelo afanelekileyo anokuthathwa ukunciphisa impembelelo yazo. Ngamanye amaxesha, isibongozo esigunyazisiweyo singaquka isivumelwano sokungabulawa komnye umlawuli, kodwa izivumelwano ezinjalo zibukhali yaye aziqinisekiswanga.

Ama-athorney kufuneka aqonde "ityala elibini" ukuchasana: imfundiso edibini yolawulo ayisebenzi xa ityala lokuqala lisesohlwayo esingesososohlwayo esingohlwayo sokuvalelwa, ngenxa yokuba i-Jeopardy Claus ngokwayo ayisebenzi kuloo mongo. Ngaphezu koko, ukuba amatyala amabini angowolwaphulo-mthetho oluyinyaniso olufanayo phantsi kolu vavanyo [[FLT:] oluthi luvavanywe (oluthi ulwaphulo-mthetho ngalunye lufune ubungqina bento enye engachananga), inkundla isenokufumana ukonakalisa okuphindiweyo, nangona ulawulo olubini lungachasanayo lungachasanayo.

Abatshutshisi

Abatshutshisi kufuneka basebenzise ubulumko bobulumko xa begqiba ukuba baqhubeke nokulandela izityholo emva komnye umlawuli sele bemvavamile. Ngoxa imfundiso ivumela ukutshutshiswa okubini, ayifuni ukuba bathatyathwe. Ii-ofisi ezininzi ze-Attorney ze-U.S. zinemigaqo yangaphakathi ethintela ukuzisa izityholo zikarhulumente emva kokuqinisekiswa ngurhulumente ngaphandle kokuba isohlwayo sibonakala singenele okanye ityala libandakanya intsabelo esibalulekileyo samalungelo abantu, njengokwaphulwa kwamalungelo abantu okanye ukurhwetyelwa kweziyobisi eziziiindleko ezinkulu.

ISebe leJaji le-U.S. lineepethithi inkqubo ebizwa ngegama elibizwa emva kwe- Pette v. United States [60]), jikelele ibophelelela urhulumente umtshutshisi emva kwetyala elifanayo ngaphandle kokuba uAttorney jikelele okanye umncedisi omiselweyo uyigunyazisile. Le nkqubo inika ikhusi esibalulekileyo kodwa ayibopheleli kubatshutshisi bakarhulumente, osenokuqhubeka.

Isiphelo: Ukulungelelanisa ulongamo nokulunga

Imfundiso yolawulo olubini imela ukhetho lwamabhongo kumthetho-siseko wase-U.S. ukubeka ulawulo kunye negunya lemigangatho emininzi karhulumente phezu komdla womntu ngamnye kwisiphelo. Ibonakalisa umbono wenkqubo yequmrhu lesizwe apho urhulumente wesizwe kunye namazwe ahlala enamandla okuqinisekisa ugcino-mthetho. Kodwa loo mbono ufika ngexabiso elifanelekileyo: imfundiso ilawulwa ngabantu ngokona kunokwenzeka kokutshutshiswa okuninzi, izigwebo ezininzi, kunye nemithwalo enxulunyaniswa nayo yokudityaniswa kwemiqathango ephinda-phinda-phindayo.

Njengokuba inkqubo yobulungisa baseMerika iqhubeka iguquka, imfundiso yobukhosi edityanisiweyo izakuhlala iyinto edidayo. Abanye bathi sisixhobo esibalulekileyo sokulwa nolwaphulo-mthetho nokuqinisekisa ukuba akukho mmangalelwa uphuncuka kubulungisa; abanye baphikisa ngelithi ngumngxube ongekho sikweni ophazamisa ukukhusela okungundoqo kweNkundla ePhakamileyo, okanye amatyala agqiba ekulinganiseni umgangatho phakathi kwegunya lobukhosi kunye namalungelo omntu. Okucacileyo kukuba nabani na osebenza ngaphakathi okanye ofunda iU.S. Inkqubo yomthetho kufuneka iqonde le mfundiso kunye neziphumo zayo. Ikamva le mfundiso lixhomekeke ekubeni iNkungaphakath ’ iNkundla ephakamileyo, iBhunga, okanye izikomkhulu, okanye izindululo zigqibe ekubeni kulungele ukuma ngokokubekwa kwelungelo lobulungisa phakathi kwegunya kunye namalungelo omntu.

Ukufunda ngokubhekele phaya, bona uluvo lweNkundla Ephakamileyo [FLT]]. igaggl v. iUnited States[[FLT]] [2010]], ityala lembali yesaziso [[FLT]] United States v. [[[FLT][[FLT][6][FLT]][12] [1922] [192], kunye nenkonzo yophandolo lophando [[FLT] [FLT][FLT][FLT][11] Umthetho ombini.]