Inkqubo yomthetho yaseUnited States isebenza njengenkqubo yenkundla ezimbini, eziquka zombini iinkundla zorhulumente nezorhulumente. Esi sakhiwo, esimiselwe ngumGaqo-siseko wase-U.S. kunye nomgaqo-siseko worhulumente ngokulandelelana, siqinisekisa ukuba iimpikiswano zomthetho zigqitywe kumgangatho ofanelekileyo karhulumente. Ukuqonda ukusebenza, ulawulo, kunye nokusebenza phakathi kwezi nkqubo zombini kubalulekile kwiingcali zomthetho, kubafundi, nakubafundisi. Olu hlalutyo lwandisiweyo lunika ukujonga ngokumanyeneyo kwiinkundla zorhulumente nezombuso, ukuvavanya iziseko zazo zomgaqo-siseko, imidalelo, imidanganiso yemithetho, kunye neziphumo ezisebenzisekayo zolawulo lolawulo lwemithetho.

Isiseko somgaqo-siseko wenkqubo yenkundla edityanisiweyo

Ukusekwa kwenkqubo yenkundla yorhulumente neyamazwe ahlukeneyo kusuka ngqo kwisakhiwo sorhulumente we-U.S. UmGaqo-siseko wase-U.S., ngeGatya III, wamisela ijaji yesizwe njengesebe elilinganayo likarhulumente ecaleni kwamasebe owiso-mthetho kunye namasebe alawulayo. IGatya III, Icandelo leCandelo 1 lezakhono zokwalathisa amandla enkundla kwi "Enye iNkundla Ephakamileyo, nakwiiNkuNkundla ePhakamileyo njengeNkundla ePhakathiweyo, ukususela kwixesha elithile ukuya kwixesha elithile ukuya kumiswa." Eli lungiselelo lanika iBhunga igunya lokudala iinkundla ezisezantsi zikarhulumente, kuquka iinkundla zesithili kunye neenkundla zesiphathonga, nto ekwenziwe ngalo ngeSibheno seSibheno seSikhathi se-17889.

Iinkqubo zenkundla yeli lizwe, ngokwahlukileyo, zifumana igunya kumgaqo-siseko wesizwe ngamnye kunye nemithetho. Ngamnye kumazwe angama-50 ulondoloza imigaqo yawo ezimeleyo, kunye nezakhiwo kunye neenkqubo ezahluka kakhulu. Le nkqubo idibeneyo ithetha ukuba imicimbi emininzi engokwasemthethweni echaphazela ubomi bemihla ngemihla . Ngokufana neempikiswano zesivumelwano, iingxelo zokonzakalisa ngokwemiqathango, iimbambano zomthetho weentsapho, kunye nokumangalelwa komthetho-mthetho wesizwe ephantsi komthetho wesizwe. //inkundla zesizwe, ngoxa zisebenzisa amandla abalulekileyo, ziinkundla zolawulo olulinganiselwe, zigunyazisa ukuva kuphela amatyala avunyelwe ngumGaqo-siseko okanye imimiselo yorhulumente.

Inkqubo yeNkundla yoMasipala: Ukwakhiwa nokupheliswa

Inkqubo yenkundla yephondo yephondo isebenza njengeqela leqela leqela labefundisi, kunye nomgangatho ngamnye owenza imisebenzi eyahlukileyo. Ukuqonda le miba kungundoqo wokuqonda indlela iinkundla zesizwe esebenza ngayo.

Iinkundla Zesithili: Umgangatho Wokuchotshelwa Kwetyala

Iinkundla zesithili zomanyano ziintendelezo jikelele zenkqubo karhulumente. Kukho imimandla engama-99 egweba ngaphaya kwe-United States, kuquka imimandla enjenge-Puerto Rico, i-Guam, iziQithi Ezinyulu zase-U.S. kunye neziQithi zaseMntla Mariyana. Isithili ngasinye sinezinqithi ezineenkundla enye ubuncinane, kunye namazwe amakhulu njengeKhalifoni, iTexas, neNew York inezithili ezininzi. Iinkundla zesithili zisingatha amatyala asekuhlaleni kunye nawaphuli-mthetho aphuma phantsi komthetho worhulumente. Kwimibango yabemi, ziva imicimbi ebandakanya imibuzo karhulumente apho isikhululo sephondo sisekelwe kumGaqo-siseko, imimiselo yorhulumente, okanye izivumelwano zezivumelwano, apho amaqela eenzakalo, apho amaqela asuka kumazwe ahlukeneyo kunye nobungakanani obungaphezulu-R35 000.

IiNkundla Zesiphaluka Zezibheno: Umgangatho Wezicelo

Iinkundla ezili-13 zesavelisi-mthethweni, ezibizwa ngokuba ziinkundla zesiphaluka zezibheno, zihlola izigqibo ezivela kwiinkundla zesithili ezikwiziphaluka zengingqi zazo. Ishumi elinesibini kwezi ziphakamiso zikwindawo, zigquma amaqela amiselweyo amazwe, ngelixa iFederal Counter inegunya kwilizwe lonke kwiimeko ezithile, kuquka izibheno ezigunyazisayo nezityholo ezichasene norhulumente wesizwe. Iinkundla zesiphaluka aziqhubeli matyala okanye zive ubungqina obutsha; endaweni yoko, zihlola iingxelo zokuchotshelwa kwetyala ngenxa yeempazamo ezisemthethweni. Izigqibo zinikezelwa ngokwemiqathango emithathu, nangona iimeko zinqabile, isekethi isenokuva ityala [[FLT.]. [FLT]

INkundla Ephakamileyo yaseUnited States

Kwincopho yejaji yephondo eliphakamileyo lase-U.S. ikhotwe lihleli kwiNkundla ePhakamileyo, eliyilwe ngabagwebi abasithoba abatyunjwe nguMongameli nabaqinisekiswe yiNkundla. INkundla inegunya lokuqala elikwimiqathango emifutshane, enjengeembambano phakathi kwamazwe, kodwa umsebenzi wayo oyintloko uphinda-phindwa. INkundla ePhakamileyo iyaqulunqa igunya lobulumko, ithetha ukuba ngamatyala okuphulaphula kwinkqubo ebizwa ngokuba yimvume ukusetyenziswa komthetho we-mthetho, . Unyaka ngamnye, amawaka ezicelo ayaqululeka, kodwa iNkundla ivuma kuphela malunga namatyala angama-70 ukuya kuma-80 ukuze kuqwalaliswe onke. Izigqibo zeNkundla eziphakamileyo zigqibelela neenkundla zolawulo eziphantsi zomthetho worhulumente kunye neenkundla zomthetho womthetho womthetho.

Ukutyholwa kweNkundla yoMazwe

Iinkundla zomanyano zinokuva kuphela amatyala akwindidi ezithile ezidweliswe kwiGatya III nakwimimiselo karhulumente. Ezi ntlobo ziquka:

  • Umbuzo we-Federal Julidition: Ityala elivela phantsi komGaqo-siseko, imithetho yorhulumente, okanye izivumelwano. Esi sisiseko esiqhelekileyo solawulo lwenkundla yesizwe.
  • Ityala lolwaphulo-mthetho: phakathi kwabemi bamazwe awahlukeneyo okanye phakathi kommi welizwe nommi wasemzini, ukuba imali exabanayo ingaphezulu lee $75,000 [R125 000].
  • Ityala elibandakanya ukuqhuba inqanawa, ukuthutha iinqanawa, kunye norhwebo lwaselwandle kumanzi anokusetyenziswa.
  • Icala lomthetho lomkhosi wecawa: iinkundla zoMasipala zinegunya elipheleleyo kumthetho wokuwiswa kwemali, nangona umthetho karhulumente usoloko umisela amalungelo empahla phakathi kwezo ziganeko.
  • I-Iases Ijikeleza i-United States: Xa urhulumente wezwe elingumbutho, kuquka iisuti ngokuchasene namaqumrhu karhulumente.
  • Ityala elibandakanya izivumelwano nezinye izizwe, ii-amiral, kunye neengxwabangxwaba zezizwe ngezizwe.

Ngenxa yokuba iinkundla zikarhulumente zilulawulo olulinganiselweyo, iqela elifuna ukucela igunya lorhulumente kufuneka libonise ukuba ityala likwinxalenye enye yezi ntlobo. Ukuba ityala alikho, ityala kufuneka lipheliswe okanye libuyiselwe enkundleni karhulumente.

Iinkundla Zomanyano Ezikhethekileyo

Ngaphandle kwesicwangciso esizii-triti ezintathu jikelele, inkqubo yesebe iquka iinkundla eziliqela ezikhethekileyo ezinegunya kwimimandla ethile yemibandela:

  • Inkundla yase-U.S. iingxelo zoMasipala: ivakala izibhengezo zomonakalo wemali nxamnye neUnited States, kuquka iimpikiswano zesivumelwano kunye nokuthatha izibhengezo phantsi koMgqino wesihlanu.
  • [[UMTL:0] U.S. iNkundla yerhafu: ilungisa iimpikiswano phakathi kwababuthi berhafu neNkonzo yeNgeniso yangaphakathi.
  • [[UMTL:0] U.S. iNkundla yeZizwe Ngezizwe zoThwebo: isingatha amatyala abandakanya imisebenzi yorhwebo lwamazwe ngamazwe kunye nemisebenzi yezithethe.
  • Inkundla yezibheno yase-U.S. yoMkhosi oxhobileyo: Ihlola inkundla-ekhohlo yamalungu omkhosi wase-U.S.
  • [[UMTL:0] U.S.INkundla yobuNcukubhede baMazwe angaphandle (Inkundla yeFISA): Izicelo zohlolo lwezicelo zophawulo lokuhlola kwiimeko zokhuseleko lwesizwe.

Ezi nkundla zikhethekileyo zibonisa ukuntsonkotha kwemithetho yesebe lezomthetho nemfuneko yobuchule kwimimandla ethile yomthetho.

Inkqubo Yenkundla Yephondo: Amahashe Okusebenza EJalamani

Iinkundla zelifa lemveli zisingatha amatyala amaninzi kakhulu eUnited States. NgokweZiko leSizwe leeNkundla zeSizwe zeNkundla zikaRhulumente, iinkundla zamatyala zodwa ziqhuba amatyala amatsha angaphezu kwama-80 ezigidi minyaka le, xa kuthelekiswa namatyala angaphantsi kwama-40 000 aqulunqwe kwiinkundla zesithili. Iinkundla zeli lizwe ziinkundla zegunya eliqhelekileyo, oko kukuthi zinokuva naliphi na ityala elingagcinelwanga iinkundla zephondo.

Inkundla yeLizwe yoMlinganiselo

Ngeli xesha izibonelelo zenkundla yephondo zingafani, ezininzi zilandela imodeli emithathu efana nenkqubo karhulumente:

  • IiNkundla eziPhambili: Ezi ziinkundla zomgangatho wokungena apho amatyala aqala khona. Amazwe amaninzi ahlula iinkundla zamatyala kwiinkundla zegunya elisikelwe umda (njengeenkundla zelizwe, iinkundla zeenqwelo-moya, okanye iinkundla zetyala elincinane) kunye neenkundla zemithetho-siseko jikelele (ezibizwa ngokuba ziinkundla eziphezulu, iinkundla zesiphaluka, okanye iinkundla zesithili).
  • [[NKQUBO:0] Inkundla ephakathi: malunga namatyala angama-40 anamatyala aphakathi ahlola izigqibo zenkundla evavanyayo. Ezi ntena zisebenza njengesigcini-mgcini-mphantsi, ukunciphisa umsebenzi wenkundla ephakamileyo karhulumente.
  • Inkundla ePhakamileyo yeSizwe: Inkundla ephakamileyo kurhulumente ngamnye, ebizwa ngokuba yinkundla ephakamileyo yorhulumente (kodwa ngamanye amaxesha inkundla yezibheno okanye inkundla ephakamileyo yezomthetho). Le nkundla inegunya lokugqibela kwimicimbi yomthetho wesizwe, iphantsi kokuhlolisiswa yiNkundla ePhakamileyo ye-U.S. ngemibuzo yezomgaqo-siseko.

Ingxelo yeNkundla yeLizwe

Iinkundla zikarhulumente zinegunya elibanzi kwimicimbi emininzi yezomthetho, equka:

  • Ukugwetywa: Amatyala amaninzi olwaphulo-mthetho ngamanye amatyala karhulumente, agwetyelwe phantsi kwekhowudi yesohlwayo sesizwe.
  • Imithetho echaphazelekayo yesivumelwano, ingozi yomntu, ubungakhathali, kunye nemveliso yetyala elivela kwinkundla yephondo.
  • UMthetho woLusalo: uqhawulo-mtshato, ukugcinwa kwabantwana, ukugcinwa kwabantwana, ukugcinwa kwabantwana, kunye namatyala ogonyamelo lwasekhaya zizinto zikarhulumente kuphela.
  • Iprobate kunye neSiseko: Ulawulo lwemiqathango, amathemba, kunye neendawo zibekwe phantsi kolawulo lwezwe.
  • [[UMTL:0] Ukungavumelani Kwezinto Zokwenene:[ Imiba ebandakanya ubunikazi bomhlaba, ulwalamano lwendawo yokuhlala, kwaye imida yempahla ivakala kwinkundla yelizwe.
  • [[UMTL: 0] Imicimbi enzima: Ukungalawuleki namatyala okuxhomekeka abandakanya abantwana aphathwa ziinkundla zolutsha zeli lizwe.

Iinkundla zeli lizwe nazo zisebenzisana kwiingxelo ezininzi zikarhulumente. Ngokomzekelo, iinkundla zikarhulumente zinokuva amatyala phantsi kwemimiselo yamalungelo abantu okanye imithetho yetyala, lo gama kungekho gunya lorhulumente likhethekileyo. Noko ke, abamangalelwa kwiimeko ezinjalo bangalisusa eli tyala kwinkundla yorhulumente phantsi kweemeko ezithile.

Ukukhethwa Kwejaji kwiiNkundla zikaRhulumente

Omnye weyona mahluko ubalulekileyo phakathi kweenkundla zikarhulumente nezorhulumente uxhomekeke kwindlela abagwebi abakhethwa ngayo. Abagwebi bamaPhondo bamiselwa ubomi nguMongameli, bangaphantsi kwengqiniseko yeNdlu yeeNtlanganiso, kwaye banokususwa kuphela ngokungeniswa. Lo mbandela wobomi ucetyelwe ukuqinisekisa inkululeko yokulawula.

Iindlela zokuchonga ityala lephondo zahluka ngokubanzi kwaye ziquka:

  • UHLOBO unyulo: luninzi lwamazwe akhetha abagwebi bawo kunyulo lwabalawuli okanye olungenayo iparatis. Le nkqubo ibandakanya abagwebi ukuba baphendule uwonke wonke kodwa ikwanyusa inkxalabo ngempembelelo yezobupolitika kunye nokuqokelela imali.
  • Isivumelwano se- Isivumelwano:[ Amanye amazwe amisela abagwebi ngokumisa i-gabernarcator, ngokufuthi ngemvume yowiso-mthetho okanye ugunyaziso lwegunya.
  • [[NTL:0] Ukukhetha iMirit (Icebo leMissouri): Indlela exubileyo apho uthumelo lutyumba abangenisiweyo, irhuluneli imisela omnye, kwaye kamva ijaji ijongene nonyulo lokuzinza. Le ndlela idibanisa ukumiselwa noxanduva lukawonke-wonke wonke.

Indlela yokukhetha inokuba negalelo ekwenzeni izigqibo zomthetho, ekuchongeni amatyala, nasekuboneni okusesikweni kwabantu.

Uhlalutyo oluthelekisayo: Umahluko ongundoqo phakathi kweeNkundla zoManyano nezoRhulumente

Ngoxa zombini ezi nkqubo zinosukelo lokucombulula iimbambano ezingokwasemthethweni, ziyahluka ngeendlela ezisisiseko ezichaphazela abachaphazeli namaqhinga asemthethweni.

Ubukhulu bephepha

Umahluko obalulekileyo lulawulo. Iinkundla zoManyano ziinkundla ezilawula imimandla elinganiselweyo, zinokuva kuphela amatyala awela kwiindidi ezithile zomGaqo-siseko kunye nezomthetho. Iinkundla zelizwe ziinkundla zolawulo jikelele, kwaye zingava phantse nayiphi na into ngaphandle kokuba ivele kwimithetho elawulayo kuphela. Oku kuthetha ukuba uninzi lweengxwabangxwaba-ngxwaba, ukusuka kumathikithi ezithuthi ukuya kungenelelo oluphezulu lwezorhwebo, ukuqala nokuphela kwinkundla yephondo. Iinkundla zomanyano lwesizwe zisingatha ityala elincinane, elinobuchule obubhekisele ekutolikeni kwe-orhulumente, izibhengezo zomGatho-siseko, izinto ezithethwa ngumthetho-siseko, nemibango yemicimbi echaphazela ukuthengiselwa kwelizwe okanye yezizwe ngezizwe ngezizwe.

Imithetho Esesikweni kunye nokuLungiselela

Iinkundla zoManyano zisebenza phantsi kweseti yemithetho efanayo, kuquka iMimiselo yoLawulo lwaMasipala, iMithetho yoNyaka yeNkcubeko, kunye neMimiselo yoLawulo loBume-mthetho yoBufakazi. Le mithetho ilungiselela ukungaguquguquki kuzo zonke izithili zengingqi, ikwenza kube lula kumagqwetha asebenzisa imigaqo emininzi.

Iinkundla zelizwe, ngokwahlukileyo, zinemithetho yazo yemo-thematika, enokuhluka ngokuphawulekayo ukusuka kurhulumente ukuya kumbuso. Kwanaphakathi kwemeko, ubalo olwahlukeneyo okanye izithili ezigwebayo zinganemithetho yasekuhlaleni eyongezelelekileyo yemithetho karhulumente ngokubanzi. Oku kusebenza kudala ubume obuntsonkothileyo babalawuli abamele balawule imithetho yolawulo ngalunye abasebenzisayo. Amanye amazwe aye amkela imithetho efana ngokusondeleyo nemithetho karhulumente, ngoxa amanye egcina izithethe eziqhelekileyo ezithe ngqo.

Izibheno Nokuphela

Isakhiwo se-appellate kwezi nkqubo zombini silandela umlinganiselo ofanayo wobucukubhede, kodwa kukho umahluko obalulekileyo. Kwinkqubo karhulumente, izibheno ezisuka kwizindululo zenkundla yesithili ziya kwinkundla yesiphaluka yezibongozo, kwaye ukusuka apho ukuya kwiNkundla ePhakamileyo yase-U.S., enezigqibo ezigunyazisayo. Kwinkqubo zikarhulumente, kudla ngokuya kwinkundla yenkundla ephakathi (ukuba ukhona) kwaye emva koko kwinkundla ephakamileyo yephondo, enegama lokugqibela kumthetho wesizwe.

Ingongoma enzima yokuphakamisa ityala xa ibandakanya umthetho worhulumente noworhulumente. Izigwebo eziphakamileyo zenkundla yorhulumente kumthetho karhulumente zingahlaziywa yiNkundla ePhakamileyo yase-U. kodwa kuphela kumbandela karhulumente. Ukutolikwa kwenkundla yeli tyala komthetho wayo kuyabotshwa kwaye akunakupheliswa ziinkundla zorhulumente. Lo mgaqo wolawulo uqinisekisa ukuba ulawulo oluzimeleyo lungagcinwa kwiinkqubo zabo zomthetho.

Iimvavanyo ze Jury kunye neVenie

Iinkundla zikarhulumente nezorhulumente zinika ilungelo lokuchophela ityala labachopheli-tyala kumatyala asekuhlaleni nawamatyala olwaphulo-mthetho, kodwa kukho umahluko osebenzayo. Amaqumrhu agweba azimeleyo kufuneka avume ukumanyana kwiinkundla zolwaphulo-mthetho naqhelekileyo ukugweba kwiimeko zamakhaya, nangona amaqela esenokumisela ngenye indlela. Imithetho yezomthetho yetyala yokwahlula amatyala ayahluka; amanye amazwe avumela izigqibo ezingamiselwanga ngokusemthethweni kwiimeko zamakhaya, okanye kwiimeko zolwaphulo-mthetho (nakuba iNkuletwane ye-U.S.

IVeneue, okanye indawo apho kuviwa khona ityala, ikwahluka. Imithetho yengingqi yengingqi yemithetho imiselwe ngomthetho kwaye ifuna ukuba ityala liziswe kwisithili apho ummangalelwa ahlala khona okanye apho inxalenye enkulu yeziganeko zenzeka. Iindawo zezo ziganeko ziyahluka, kodwa zidla ngokuvumela ukuqokelelwa kwemiba apho ummangalelwa ahlala khona, apho ityala livela khona, okanye apho indawo ikhoyo.

Imisebenzi Esebenzisekayo Yabathathi-nxaxheba

Ukhetho phakathi kwenkundla yesizwe neyaserhulumente lungasichaphazela ngokuphawulekayo isiphumo setyala. Abameli namagqwetha abo kufuneka baqwalasele oothunywashe abaliqela xa begqiba ukuba baza kubeka phi:

  • Imithetho engqukuva: isenokuba yeyona ithe ngqo neqheleke kakhulu kwisiluleko esingaphandle, kodwa imithetho karhulumente inokuba yeyokulungela ngakumbi kwimibandela ethile, efana nokuncenga okanye imida yokufumana.
  • [[FLT: 0] Abagwebi boMazwe aPhakamileyo kunye noMatyala: basoloko bebonwa njengamava aphezulu kwaye benezinto ezilula ezithwaliswayo, ezinokuthi zikhokelele kwisigqibo esikhawulezileyo. Abagwebi belizwe, ingakumbi kulawulo lomthwalo ophezulu, bangajongana nolibaziseko olubalulekileyo.
  • [[NTL: 0] I-Jury Comition: Iqumrhu logwebo logwebo lizotywa kwisithili sonke, ngokufuthi likhupha iqumrhu labachopheli-tyala elineentlobo ezininzi. Iijaji zephondo zithathwa kwingingqi okanye kwisithili sezomthetho, ezisenokuba zezona zidityanisiweyo. Oku kunokubaluleka kwiimeko ezibandakanya ikhethe lasekuhlaleni okanye imigangatho yasekuhlaleni.
  • [[FLT: 0] Iinketho ezidityanisiweyo: Ukufumaneka kwenkundla ephakathi kwinkqubo yorhulumente nakumazwe amaninzi kunika umaleko owongezelelweyo wohlolo, onokubaluleka ekulungiseni iimpazamo.
  • Ukukhutshwa kwiNkundla yoManyano: AbaKhuseli basoloko benelungelo lokususa ityala kwinkundla yenkundla yetyala yephondo ukuba ityala belinokugcinwa okokuqala kwinkundla yequmrhu (umz., ulawulo oluhlukeneyo okanye ulawulo lwemiba). Esi sisixhobo esinamandla kunokutshintsha umhlaba wetyala elikwindawo ephantsi nelasekufutshane.

Isiphelo

Inkqubo yenkundla edibeneyo eUnited States, equka zombini iinkundla zorhulumente nezorhulumente, ziimpawu zesiseko soburhulumente baseMerika. Iinkundla zomanyano, ezinemithetho elinganiselweyo kunye nabagwebi abanolawulo olulinganiselweyo, zisingatha amatyala abandakanya umthetho wesizwe, imiba yomgaqo-siseko, kunye neembambano phakathi kwamaqela ahlukeneyo. Iinkundla zelizwe, njengeenkundla zolawulo jikelele, ziqhuba uninzi lwempikiswano zomthetho kunye nolawulo lwezikomkhulu lwenkundla. Ukuqonda iindima ezahlukileyo, iinkqubo, kunye nemithetho yenkqubo nganye ibalulekile ekuqhubeni phambili ngokufanelekileyo kwelizwe. Ukuba umfundi ufunda ngemithetho yephondo, imigaqo-mthetho, okanye umalathisi womthetho, abasebenzi bezomthetho, abanolwazi olulungele ukuqondwa kwemeko-orhulumente kunye neenkundla zomthetho basekuhlaleni. U.