UHlaziyo lweshumi elinesine kuMgaqo-siseko waseUnited States lungomnye wezona ngxelo zomthetho zilandelayo kwimbali yaseMerika. Iwandiswe ngo1868, emva kweMfazwe Yamakhaya, yayenzelwe ukukhusela amalungelo abantu ababesandul' ukukhululwa ebukhoboka kunye nokulungisa ulwalamano phakathi korhulumente norhulumente. Kwiminyaka eli-105 edluleyo, amalungiselelo ayo aye esisiseko sezigqibo zeNkundla ePhakamileyo kumalungelo abantu, inkqubo efanelekileyo, kunye nokhuseleko olulinganayo. Ukuqonda izibakala ezingundoqo ngale nkululeko kuyimfuneko kuye nabani na ofuna ukuva isiseko somthetho esikhusela amalungelo abantu namhlanje.

Imbali Nentsingiselo

IsiHlaliso seMimiselo yeshumi elinesine sasiyenye yeziHlaliso ezintathu zoMmiselo woMyalelo oLawulweyo ovunyiweyo phakathi ko1865 no1870. UMthetho-Myezo weshumi elinesihlanu waphelisa ubukhoboka; uMphengululo weshumi elinesihlanu walwalela ucalulo olusekelwe kuhlanga. UMthetho-Mdambi weshumi elinesihlanu uhlala phakathi kwabo njengesiseko sokwakha, uchaza ubumi bobumi kunye nemigaqo ephakamileyo karhulumente kwimithetho karhulumente. Emva kokuba uPresidenti ka-Andrew Johnson wenkqubo yokwandiswano evumela amaphondo aseMazantsi ukuba adlulise "Imithetho Emnyama" eyahlula kakhulu amalungelo aseAfrika, Congresskontrongments, [“icers", enziwe nguRiphabliki-odecima i-ader Republicans", i-addidentiercement intement intement i-od symental kuphelisa loo mithetho karhulumente nokubeka isithembiso sokulingana nokwahlulwa komgaqo.

Idluliswe yiKhonkethi ngoJuni 13, 1866, yaza yagunyaziswa ngoJulayi 9, 1868, iSekelo yasiguqula esona sigebenga seNkundla Ephakamileyo Dred Scott v. Sandford [1857], eyayikholelwa ukuba abantu bomnombo waseAfrika abanakuze babe ngabemi base-U.S. iCandelo 1 lokupheliswa kwetyala lale nkundla yakhanyela ngqo ngokuthi bonke abantu abazelwe okanye abadaliweyo eUnited States ngabemi belizwe kunye nelizwe abahlala kulo.

Amalungiselelo Ayintloko OMthetho We - 14 Wokwenziwa Komthetho

ISihlaziyi seshumi elinesine sibunjwe ngamacandelo amahlanu, kodwa iCandelo 1 liqulethe olona lwimi lunamandla nolusoloko lusetyenziswa. Ukuqonda la mabinzana kubalulekileyo.

Ummi UClaus

Icandelo lokuqala liqala: "Bonke abantu abazalelwe okanye abalawulwa eUnited States, kwaye bephantsi kolawulo lwayo, bangabemi baseUnited States kunye noRhulumente apho bahlala khona." Eli binzana limisele ubuhlanga , `umgaqo ohlala uphantsi kwengxoxo engokwasemthethweni neyopolitiko namhlanje. Iqinisekisa ukuba nawuphi na umntwana ozelwe e-U.S. (ngokungafaniyo, njengabantwana boonozakuvela-mazwe angaphandle) uba ngumthetho we-U.S. kungakhathaliseki ukuba abazali bakwindawo ekwaphumi kuyo. Igalelo elikhoyo lingumbandela wokuphendula ngqo kwi- Scott kwaye ixhasa ingcamango yokuba ubumi bobumi ngumbandela bomthetho woluntu, urhulumente wesizwe, urhulumente wezomthetho.

Inkqubela KaClaus

Eli candelo linye liyaqhubeka: "... kwaye naliphi na iLizwe aliyi kuhlutha naliphi na umntu ubomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla, ngaphandle kwenkqubo efanelekileyo yomthetho. Eli binzana lisebenza ngokufanayo ukuba uHlaziyo lwesihlanu lunyanzelisa urhulumente wezwe. Inkqubo inezilinganiso ezimbini: [ inkqubo efunekayo[ iqinisekisa iinkqubo ezifanelekileyo zobulungiseleli, okanye ulawulo, ijaji engenamkhethe, qhinga, `phambi kokuba urhulumente asuse ubomi bomntu, inkululeko, okanye impahla; [[FLT:]] ikhusela amalungelo athile angundoqo karhulumente ekungeneni, nokuba iinkqubo zilungile. Ngenkqubo esezantsi, iNkukhundla ephakamileyo iyaziwa, amalungelo obuqu, ukubhaptiza, i-Croggggg.[5]

Ukukhusela UClaus Ngokulinganayo

Icandelo 1 liyalela: "Kungekhona ukukhanyela nakuwuphi na umntu okwindawo yayo yolawulo olulinganayo. Eli binzana lilula liye laba sisixhobo esiyintloko sokuvavanya imithetho echaphazelekayo. Umgangatho olinganayo wokhuseleko luka-Claus ufuna ukuba urhulumente aphathe abantu ngendlela efanayo. Intsingiselo yawo ibekwe ngokulinganayo ukuqukwa kwamashumi eminyaka ekwakhiweni komthetho, ukumisela izintlu-manani zovavanyo olufanelekileyo. Imithetho emininzi iphinda ihlolwe phantsi kovavanyo oluluvo olululo olungu() icingelwa ukuba iyasebenza ukuba inento elungileyo kwinzala esemthethweni karhulumente. Kodwa imithetho esekelwe kwisiseko sohlanga, umsuka kohlanga, okanye ucalucalulo olungqongqo, olunzima, lusoloko luchatshazwa phantsi ngaphandle kokuba lusebenza umdla onyanzekileyo kwaye lungasetyenziswa ngokulula. [4] [4] [4].[4]

Amalungelo Okanye Unyukelo LukaClaus

Phakathi kweSizwe uClausse kunye ne-Act Programme Claus sibinzana elithi: "Akukho Rhulumente iya kwenza okanye inyanzelisa nawuphi na umthetho oza kuvala amalungelo okanye ukugoma kwabemi base-United States. Eli binzana lalijoliswe ekukhuseleni amalungelo esizwe ekuchaseni urhulumente. Noko ke, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yayingo1873 kwisigqibo Ukuchasa-Ndl ’ iNdlukhwe [[[ ifunda eli tyala ngokucuthene kakhulu, ibambe ukuba kuphela ikhusela amalungelo "okuba ngummi wesizwe" (njengelungelo lokuya kwisihlalo sikarhulumente okanye ekufikeleleni kwenkundla). Isigqibo eso sayifaka igalelo njengemvelaphi yamalungelo okungalo. Abanye abagwebi bezomthetho zale kule nkulungwane. Kodwa imele ukubuyiselwa kwemithetho ephambili yeNt.

Amalungelo Asemthethweni Akhuselwa NguMphetho

Uhlaziyo lweshumi elinesine aluwadwelisi amalungelo akhethekileyo ngendlela iBhili yamaLungelo ewenza ngayo. Endaweni yoko, imisela imigaqo ebanzi eye yasetyenziswa ziinkundla ukukhusela uninzi oluninzi lwenkululeko. Ngezantsi ngamanye amalungelo angundoqo aye avunywa phantsi kokupheliswa.

Ilungelo Lobumi Nesizwe

Ukuba ngummi ngokusemthethweni phantsi kweSizwe u-Claus kuthetha ukuba wonke umntu ozalelwe e-United States (naphantsi kwegunya lakhe) ngummi. Eli lungelo alinakuthatyathwa yiKhonklare okanye yimibutho ngaphandle kwemijelo emincinane elungiselelwe kwicandelo 1. INkundla ePhakamileyo yakuqinisekisa oku United States--v. Wong Kim Ark [ [1898], iphethe ukuba umntwana ozalelwe eUnited States kubazali baseTshayina abaphambukeli ngu-U.S. ummi, nangona umthetho worhulumente welizwe ngexesha elivalelweyo ekungangeni kwendalo. Lo mgaqo uhlala ulungile kwaye usisiseko sengxoxo yabantwana abaphambukele abaphambukeli.

Ukukhuselwa Kwimithetho Echaseneyo

Ukhuseleko olulinganayo ngukhuseleko oluyintloko kucalucalulo lwesizwe. Luye lwasetyenziswa ekumiseleni imithetho elwahluleni uhlanga, ubuhlanga, ubufana, indlela yesondo, kunye nezinye izigaba. Umzekelo, Obergefell v. Hodders[[FLT:] (2011]], iNkundla yamkela ukuvalwa kwemfundo ephezulu, ngexa kamva kuthe kwakwa ukuvalwa kwemiqathango ekhoyo kwiNkqubo elindelekileyo kunye neSikhuseli esilinganayo sika-Claus. Ngokufanayo, [[FLT:]]]Graiteb v. Bollinger[FLT][2003]]) ukuvumela ukuvukelwa kwemfundo ephakamileyo yemihlathi phantsi kovavanyo, ngexesha elifana nesigqibo se-FT [FT][4]

Ilungelo Kwinkqubo Elindelekileyo Kwinkqubela Esemthethweni

Inkqubo efunekayo yenkqubo engokomthetho kufuneka ukuba phambi kokuba urhulumente asuse amalungelo omntu, loo mntu kufuneka afumane isaziso kunye nethuba lokuviwa ngendlela enentsingiselo. Oku kusebenza kwiityala zolwaphulo-mthetho, ukulahlekelwa zizenzo zamakhaya, ukupheliswa kwamalungelo abazali, ukurhoxiswa kweminye imisebenzi emininzi karhulumente. INkundla ePhakamileyo isebenzisa uvavanyo olulungelelanisayo olusungulwe Mathews v. Elditridge[[[FL:1]] [16] ukugqiba oko kufuneka ngokomgqaliselo: umdla wobuqu, umngcipheko wokungachatshazelwa ngokuphosakeleyo phantsi kwemigaqo yangoku, kunye nomdla wemali karhulumente kwingeniso ephambili.

Ingxelo yamalungelo

Nge-Active Process Claus, uMphetho weshumi elinesine wesiHlawuli soLawulo ulwenze uninzi lwamalungelo anyanzelekile kwangoko kumazwe. Le nkqubo, ebizwa ngokuba ikhetha ubudlelane obupheleleyo, yaqala ngokunyanisekileyo ekuqaleni kwenkulungwane yama-20. Inkululeko yokuLandlwa kwentetho, ihlaziywa, ingqungquthela, kunye nonqulo zafakwa kwangoko. Amanye amalungelo afakelwe kwangoko, phantse namhlanje, onke amalungelo e-i-i-ekunene e-Bhill yamaLungelo [McDonald v.[[FLT], 2010], kunye nelungelo lokuvava ityala lomgwebi wetyala loluntu kwiimeko ezinkulu zemali ephantsi kwegunya elilawula i-RGreasethi.

Amalungelo asisiseko kunye nenkqubo elindelekileyo

Inkqubo engundoqo engundoqo ikhusela amalungelo athile "asekelwe ngokunzulu kwimbali nesithethe sesi sizwe" nokuba akachazwanga kwiMithetho-siseko. La malungelo aquka ilungelo lokutshata, ilungelo lokukhulisa abantwana, ilungelo lokukhulisa abantwana njengoko bebona kufanelekile, ilungelo lokusebenzisa ukuthintela ukuthintela, ilungelo lokubanda kwiintlobano zesini, ilungelo lokubandakanyeka kwizenzo zangasese zesondo, kunye nelungelo lokuqhomfa (njengoko kumiselwe [[FLT: 0]]] Roe v. [[FLT:]] IQumrhu lobuliso lobudo] [[FLT]]]] 1973 kunye nokulungiswa [[FLT:]] okungalinganiyo, [[FLT]]]]] imvume yokubulala ityala. [iindlela engundoqo yokukhupha inzala inzala inzala yomtshato, kodwa elikhohlokelwe kukunga kumgaqo womtshato oqhelekileyo. [FF.5] Isigqibo sokufa salo siyaqhubeka ukukhusela ukurhosa.

Impembelelo Yamalungelo Abemi Neenguqu

Ngaphandle kwayo, uninzi lweempumelelo eziphawulekayo zombutho wamalungelo abantu, umbutho wamalungelo amabhinqa, nombutho wamalungelo amabhinqa, neLGBTQ + ubungenakukwazi ukwandisa amalungelo abantu.

Ukuphelisa Uhlanga

Pnegson [1896], iNkundla Ephakamileyo yaxhasa ucalucalulo lohlanga phantsi kwe "imfundiso ehlukeneyo kodwa elinganayo", igqiba kwelokuba uKhuselo olulinganayo luka-Claus aluzange lwaphulwe nje kuphela njengoko amaziko ayelingana. Esi sigqibo somthetho esigunyazisiweyo uJim Crow kuMzantsi phantse iminyaka engama-60. INkundla yeNkundla ekugqibeleni yarhoxa i-Pely kwi- Brown v. ibhodi yemfundo yemfundo[FLT:] [1954] [54], ibambe ukuba ukudibana kweentlanga kwizikolo kwakungagqibekanga. ISikhulu uEarl Warval Warl ubhale ukuba i-evalueval, kwaye "ijiza i-Groul i-" i-" i-evoavdeteteteexpt ingathi i-expt.[F]

Ukukhusela Amalungelo Okudlulisela Intetho

ISichibiyelo seshumi elinesine, sidibene noMphetho-Mgaqo-nkqubo weshumi elinesihlanu, uye wasetyenziselwa ukuvavanya ucalucalulo lwabavoti. INkundla ePhakamileyo yagatya irhafu yovota kwi- Harper v. Virginia Board of Evolutions [66] phantsi kwe-Mongamo yoKhuselo lweSikhuseliso se-Cult Clauslee, kunye namatyala athenjiweyo athenjiwe kancinci esizwe ekwakheniseni imithetho ye-IPropolate. Noko ke, izigqibo zakutshanje ezinje Shelby County v. Haker (2013]) ayabanziwa phantsi kweSivumelo somthetho somthetho wonyaka wama-66, ebezinziswe kwinxalenye yemithetho ye-Bhunga loMbutho. Imfazwe ephakathi, iyaqhubeka nokurhoxinalo-orhoxinelo-ote.

Ukukhusela Ukulingana Komtshato

[[NTL:0] imbono yabaninzi yaxhomekeka kuyo yomibini i-Claus (ukukhusela ilungelo elisisiseko lokutshata) kunye ne-Computation Claus (ukuchaza ucalucalucalulo olusekelwe kwimbonakalo yesondo). Isigqibo sasiyiwo isiqinisekiso se-LGBTQ + amalungelo e-Entelligence. UJaji Kennedy waxhomekeka kwi-Unist Procestion Claus (ukukhusela ilungelo elisisiseko lokutshata) kunye ne-Computement Protection Claus (ixamplate therification ngokusekelwe kwimbonakalo yesini).

Isenzo Esizinzileyo Nokhuseleko Olulinganayo

Isiqinisekiso se 144 IsiHlanzo sokhuseleko esilinganayo sikwayindawo yedabi ekuvulweni kwesenzo. Iinguqu zeYunivesithi yaseCalifornia v. Bakke [[FLT] [1988], iNkundla yagqiba ukuba umlinganiselo wohlanga wawungahambelani nomthetho kodwa unokuba yinto enye ekuvumeni. Iimeko zamva, eziquka [[FLT:] v. Bollinger [2003], ixhasa ngokulula imigaqo-yo-luhlanga. Noko ke, [kuhlanga: 4.] umlinganiselo we-Activectivessss''''''''''''''''''''''''''.[FLT]

Iinkcazelo Neempikiswano Zale Mihla

Uxwebhu lwe - 14 Demendment lusaqhubeka luyinto ephilayo, nentsingiselo yalo isoloko ithandatyuzwa kwiinkundla, kwiindlu zowiso-mthetho nakwintetho yesidlangalala.

Ukuzalwa Kulucelomngeni

Abanye amanani bezobupolitika kunye nabaphengululi bomthetho baye babuza ukuba i-Citizenshishic Claus ifanele ukusebenza kubantwana abafudukayo abangabhalwanga. Baphikisa ngelithi aba bantwana aba "abalawulwa" kwimithetho yase-United States ngengqiqo epheleleyo. Noko ke, imbono exhasiweyo engokwasemthethweni ekhoyo ````ixhaswe ngumbhalo,'' i-Wang Kim Ark imizekelo, kunye nemithetho elawulayo yesizwe, isithi ubumi bobumi bungumGawula kwaye bunokutshintshwa kuphela ngomnye umGaqo-siseko. Nayiphi nayiphi imigudu yokuchaza kwakhona ulawulo lwe-Rogration okanye umthetho ngokuqinisekileyo izakujamelana nocelomngeni lomthetho.

Inkqubo elindelekileyo emva kwamabhobhisi

Isigqibo seNkundla ePhakamileyo samaDobbs uvule ucango lokuzifaka kucelomngeni nxamnye namanye amalungelo enkqubo afunekayo. Eminye imithetho nezigqibo zenkundla sele ithandabuze ilungelo lokuthintela ukuthintela ([Griswold v.Connecticut[[FL:3]6]6]) kunye nelungelo lokuziphatha ngokwesondo ( L’OK [LT] LYP v.[FLT][5]] 2003. Ngexesha umbathi oluninzi lwazibanga luthandabuzisileyo imo lwezomzelo, ukuqiqanda okunganziwayo okungasetyenziswayo kwimbali enkulu.[5]

Ukhuseleko olulinganayo nophawu lokwahlukanisa iintlobano zesini

Iinkundla zisebenzisa ngokukhulayo iSihlomelo soKhuselo lwaMalimo luka-Clawlec ekuthetheni ukuba ucalucalulo olusekelwe kwimbonakalo yesini kunye nokwaziwa kwamabhinqa. Bostock v. Clayton County[[FLT:] [2020], iNkundla ePhakamileyo yathi iSihlomelo se-Si VII samaLungelo samaLungelo esilwa nocalucalucalulo olusekelwe kwinkcathalo lobufana kunye nabasebenzi abadluliswa ngesondo. Le meko isekelwe kwinkcazelo ye-stativery, hayi kwi-1459th Amendument. Kodwa ngoku iinkundla ezisezantsi ziqwalasela ukuba ngabathathi-mthetho abathathi bekhethe abantu ngabanye, umzekelo kwimidlalo, kwizindlu zokuhlambela, okanye kwinkathalo yonyango. Le meko isenokufikelela kwiNkundla ephakamileyo kwaye ichaze umda olandelayo weNkundla.

Ngaba Amalungelo Athile Okanye Ayavuselelwa?

Iqela elincinane kodwa elinempembelelo labaphengululi kunye nabagwebi liphikisa ngelithi amalungelo okanye ama-Immunion Claus kufuneka abuyiselwe njengesithuthi sokuqala sokukhusela amalungelo asisiseko. Babonisa ukuba iNdlu yokuhleka [ isigqibo esiphosakeleyo sagqitywayo nokuba intsingiselo yokuqala yegama yabameli yayikukhusela amalungelo angundoqo e-U.S. abami abachasene norhulumente. UJaji Clarence Thomas uye waxhasa ngokuphindaphindiweyo le mbono ngokungqinelana iimbono. Ngoxa iNkungalwangamkelanga olu cwangciso, ukutshintsha kwemfundiso kusenokuba neziphumo eziphambili zamalungelo emipuleni, inkululeko yezoqoqosho, kunye nezinye iindawo eziphantsi kolawulo lwesizwe. [FLT.] [FLT.PG.[5][5]

Unyanzeliso kunye necandelo 5

ICandelo 5 loMthendeleko we-14th Reference linika iNkqutyana "ulawulo lokunyanzelisa, ngomthetho ofanelekileyo, ngamalungiselelo eli nqaku. Oku kunikwa igunya kuye kwasetyenziselwa ukudlulisela imithetho yamalungelo abantu ephawulekayo, kuquka uMthetho wamaLungelo ka-1964, iSivumelwano samaLungelo sama-65, kunye noMthetho weSikolo weSizwe weSizwe weMpawu yowe-1965. Noko ke, iNkuNkundla ePhakamileyo inokuthi ngamaxesha athile inyanzelele ukunyanzelisa kwemithetho yeBhunga. [FOFLT:0]] iBintu yeBoerne v. Flores[FFFLT][FLT][FFLT] [FLT] [Foct:1] [1997], iNkutsho phantsi kweMthethweno-mthetho womthetho woMthethwe-mthetho wobuzwelo-Mveli wowe-Mveli wowe-Msebenzi womthetho wowe-Mbindixesha-mali ngo-mali ngo-mali ngo-mali ngo-5 [19

Isiphelo: Ilifa Elihlala Lihleli LoMthetho Wokwenziwa Kwemibini

IsiHlanziso seshumi elinesine sawuguqula umGaqo-siseko ukusuka kumanyano phakathi kwamazwe norhulumente wesizwe waba yimithetho yenkululeko yomntu ngamnye. Ukuba kwawo nguMntu wawo uClaus wamisela umgangatho wokuba ngummi kwamalungelo omntu anqabileyo phakathi kwamazwe. I-'Active Proce Claus'''s ifake phantse yonke iBhili yamaLungelo nxamnye namazwe kwaye ikhusele inkululeko esisiseko abatsha ababengenakuyicinga. Ukukhusela kwawo uClauslee ube likrele nekhaka lenzala yamaMerika elwela okusesikweni nokuquququzelelwa. Kwawo okanye amalungelo ayo, nangona kukudala ehleli, angavuka ekwazi ukuvelisa indima entsha ekukhuseleni amalungelo abantu ngabanye.

Njengokuba ilizwe liqhubeka liphikisana ngentsingiselo yokulingana, inkululeko, kunye nobumi, ngokungathandabuzekiyo uMphengululo weshumi elinesine uza kuhlala kusesazuluni sezo ngxoxo. Ukuqonda izibakala zalo ezisisiseko asiyonto nje imfundo kuphela ephambili yoluvo lwemfundo (ibalulekile kulo nawuphi na ummi ofuna ukuba nenxaxheba kwiprojekthi yedemokhrasi eqhubekayo yaseMelika. Ukuqhubeka kufundo lweziko lobugrafisi. [[FLT:]]], bona [[FLT]]], kunye nolawulo lwezibonelo lwezwe [FLT] olusemthethweni nolulonke ulwazi lwembali. [FFFFFFF]]