Table of Contents
Inkqubo yokugweba isebenza njengesiseko solawulo-demokhrasi, inikela isiseko esibalulekileyo apho imithetho ichazwa, kuconjululwa khona, kwaye kunikwa ubulungisa. Ukuqonda indlela iinkundla ezisebenza ngayo, isiseko sazo solawulo, kunye neenkqubo ezilandelayo zinika abantu amandla okuqhuba imingeni esemthethweni ngentembelo enkulu nephumelelayo. Nokuba ujongene nempikiswano engokwasemthethweni, ukhonza kwinkundla yabachopheli-tyala, okanye uzama nje ukuqonda amalungelo akho njengommi, ulwazi lwenkqubo yokugweba lubalulekile.
Yintoni Inkqubo Yezeejaji?
Umsebenzi oyintloko wesebe eligwebayo kukulungisa ngokusesikweni nokulungisa iingxabano ngokungakhethi buso ngokomthetho. Inkqubo yokugweba imela elinye lamasebe amathathu alinganayo karhulumente, esebenza kunye namasebe owiso-mthetho kunye namagunya alawulayo ukugcina ulungelelwano lwamandla oluchaza uluntu lwale mihla lwedemokhrasi. La masebe mathathu — awezomthetho, aphethe, nakwezomthetho-siseko — asebenza ngaphakathi kwinkqubo yenkqubo "yokukhangela nokulinganisela."
Isebe eligwebayo lichaza imithetho, limisela umGaqo-siseko walo, lize liwusebenzise kumatyala alo ngamanye. Iinkundla emigangatho eyahlukeneyo ziva izigidi zamatyala nyaka ngamnye, ukususela ekuchasweni kweminye imiba encinane yezithuthi ukuya kwimibuzo entsonkothileyo echaphazela umgaqo-siseko welizwe. Izigqibo ezenziwa kwinkqubo yokugweba zichaphazela yonke into ukususela kwinkululeko yabantu ukuya kwimiqathango yezoshishino, imicimbi yentsapho ukuya kulwaphulo-mthetho.
Iinkundla zeUnited States zinxulumene ngokusondeleyo neenkqubo zeenkundla zolawulo kumgangatho wesizwe nowaserhulumenteni. Iinkundla zelifa lesizwe zibumba isebe eligwebayo lorhulumente wase-United States kwaye zisebenza phantsi kwegunya lomGaqo-siseko weUnited States nomthetho wesizwe. Urhulumente kunye neenkundla zelizwe lamazwe e-U.S. kunye nemimandla esebenza phantsi kwegunya lesizwe nemithetho-siseko yesizwe norhulumente kunye nomthetho wengingqi.
Isiseko esibucala senkqubo yezeejaji
Ukuqonda isakhiwo senkqubo yokugweba kufuna ukuqaphela ukuba iinkundla zilungelelaniswe ngendlela yezobungangamsha, ngemigangatho eyahlukeneyo efeza imisebenzi eyahlukeneyo. Inkqubo yokugweba, nokuba ngurhulumente okanye ngurhulumente, iqala ngenkundla yokuqala, umsebenzi wayo osenokuphinda uhlolwe yinkundla ejongene nenkundla, ize ke iphele kwinkundla yenkundla yokugqibela, enokuhlola umsebenzi weenkundla ezisezantsi.
Inkqubo yenkundla yoManyano
IGatya III lomGaqo-siseko wase-U.S. ladala iNkundla ePhakamileyo neNkundla eMgangathweni egunyazisiweyo ukuba imise inkqubo yeenkundla ezincinci. Inkqubo yenkundla yelifa lemveli inemigangatho emithathu ephambili, nganye ineembopheleleko negunya elikhethekileyo.
IiNkundla zeSithili zaseUnited States
Iinkundla zesithili okanye zamatyala ezizi- 94 zelizwe zibizwa ngokuba ziinkundla zesithili zase-U.S. iinkundla zesithili zicombulula iimbambano ngokumisa izibakala nokusebenzisa umthetho kwezo zibakala. Ezi ntena zisebenza njengeenkundla zokuvavanya iinkqubo zikarhulumente, apho kuqala kuthethwa amatyala kwaye kunikwa ubungqina. Iinkundla zesithili zinegunya lokuqala kumatyala karhulumente, intsingiselo yokuba ziinkundla zokuqala ukuva iimpikiswano ezibandakanya umthetho wesizwe, imibuzo yesiseko, kunye namatyala athile phakathi kwamaqela asuka kumazwe awahlukeneyo.
Inkundla yesithili yeFederal isingatha imicimbi yamakhaya neyezaphuli-mthetho. Oku kuboniswa kukuba ama-80% amacala ngabemi kwaye angama-20% angolwaphulo-mthetho. Amatyala asekuhlaleni asoloko ebandakanya amalungelo abantu, imvume, ukhuseleko loluntu, ngoxa amatyala olwaphulo-mthetho ebandakanya ukuqhatha irhafu, ukuphanga, ubuxoki, kunye nolwaphulo-mthetho lweziyobisi.
Iinkundla Zezibheno ZaseUnited States
Kukho iinkundla ezili-13 ezifumana iziphumo ezihlala ngaphantsi kweNkundla ePhakamileyo yase-U.S. kwaye zibizwa ngokuba ziinkundla zezibheno. Umsebenzi wenkundla yetyala ye-appellate kukugqiba enoba umthetho wasetyenziswa ngokuchanekileyo kwinkundla yamatyala okanye kwisebe lolawulo lorhulumente. Ezi nkundla ziphakathi zihlola izigqibo ezivela kwiinkundla zesithili kwimimandla yazo, zihlola imibuzo engokwasemthethweni kunokuba zihlole iinzamente ezichane nenyaniso ezenziwe ekuchongweni.
Inkqubo ye-appellate karhulumente iquka iinkundla zesiphaluka ezili-12 zephondo kunye neNkundla yezibheno zeFederal, ezinegunya elikhethekileyo kwiintlobo ezithile zamatyala afana neempikiswano ezigunyazisiweyo nezibheno ezivela kumasebe athile orhulumente.
INkundla Ephakamileyo yaseUnited States
Kwincopho yequmrhu lezahlulelo zequmrhu lesizwe lihleli kwiNkundla ePhakamileyo, inkundla ePhakamileyo yesizwe, umxhasi wokugqibela wemibuzo yomgaqo-siseko. INkundla ePhakamileyo inegunya elisemthethweni kwiimeko ezininzi, ithetha ukuba ingakhetha amatyala okuwaphulaphula ngenkqubo ebizwa ngokuba yimvume yokunika isibeleko. INkundla isoloko iphulaphula amatyala abandakanya imibuzo ebalulekileyo engokomgaqo-siseko, iinkundla eziphantsi, okanye imicimbi ebaluleke kakhulu kubantu.
Iinkqubo zenkundla yeRhulumente
Icala lorhulumente liphela ```ityala kunye ne-appellate''' ngokwemiqathango embalwa kakhulu ngokweemeko, malunga nama-90 ekhulwini ayo onke amatyala akwinkqubo yenkundla yase-U.
Ekuqhubekekeni, ngoko, mbuso ngamnye wamkela icandelo lejaji yawo ubuncinane ibe ngamanqanaba amabini, kwaye phantse wonke urhulumente unemigangatho emithathu, kunye namatyala axoxwayo anokuphinda ahlolwe ziinkundla zetyala, kwaye ekugqibeleni yinkundla ephakamileyo yeli lizwe. Ngelixesha amagama nezakhiwo ezithile ziyahluka ngokwemeko nganye, ezininzi zilandela imodeli efanayo eneziqikelelo ezintathu.
Iinkundla Zokuchophela Ityala
Iinkundla zetyala zisebenza njengendawo yokungena kwiimpikiswano ezininzi ezingokwasemthethweni eMerika. Ezi nkundla ziva ubungqina, zivavanya ubungqina, zize zenze izigqibo zokuqala zenyaniso nomthetho. Iinkundla zenkundla zisenokuhlulwa zibe ziinkundla ezilawula jikelele, ezinokuphulaphula iintelekiso ezahlukahlukeneyo, neenkundla ezilawula imicimbi ethile okanye ezikhethekileyo, ezisingatha iindidi ezithile zemicimbi.
Uninzi lolwaphulo-mthetho kunye nezenzo zolwaphulo-mthetho, ezifana nokuphanga, ukudlwengula, nokubulala, kukuphulwa kwemithetho karhulumente, yaye ngaloo ndlela amatyala aviwa ziinkundla zikarhulumente. Iinkundla zeli lizwe zikwasingatha imicimbi yasekuhlaleni; ukwenzakala ngokobuqu, ukungaqeshwa kakuhle kwemisebenzi, uqhawulo-mtshato, intsapho, abantwana, iprobate, kunye neempikiswano zezivumelwano kunye namatyala emicimbi yefama, ukukhankanya nje ambalwa, kudla ngokuba ngamatyala aphantsi karhulumente.
IiNkundla eziBandakanyekileyo
Uninzi lwamazwe lumisele iinkundla eziphakathi ukuhlolisisa izigqibo ezisuka kwiinkundla zamatyala. Njengeenkundla eziphakathi zomgangatho ophantsi, umsebenzi wawo oyintloko kukuva izibheno ezivela kwizicelo eziqhelekileyo, kumasipala nakwinkundla yamaphondo. Ezi nkundla zihlalutya amatyala kumacandelo amathathu, zihlolisisa enoba inkundla echongiweyo iwusebenzisa ngokufanelekileyo umthetho ize ilandele iinkqubo ezichanekileyo.
IiNkundla Eziphakamileyo Zelizwe
Each state has a court of last resort, typically called the Supreme Court, though some states use different names. A few states have two separate supreme courts, with one having authority over civil matters and the other reviewing criminal cases. State supreme courts have the final say on matters of state law and state constitutional interpretation, though their decisions on federal constitutional questions can be reviewed by the U.S. Supreme Court.
Iintlobo zeeNkundla nemisebenzi yazo ekhethekileyo
Ngaphandle kwesakhiwo sezolawulo jikelele, inkqubo yokugweba iquka iinkundla ezininzi ezikhethekileyo ezilungiselelwe ukusingatha iindidi ezithile zamatyala ngokunempumelelo nangobuchule obufanelekileyo. Ukuqonda ezi nkundla zikhethekileyo kunceda abantu baqonde indawo efanelekileyo kwimicimbi yabo engokwasemthethweni.
Iinkundla Zezaphuli - mthetho
Kumatyala omthetho enkqubo yethu zizo apho ummangalelwa etyholwa ngokwaphula umthetho. Ukuba ufunyaniswe enetyala, isohlwayo esisusela kwimali encinane ukuya kwisigwebo sokufa sisenokuphunyezwa. Iinkundla zezaphuli-mthetho zisingatha amatyala apho urhulumente agweba abantu okanye amaqumrhu ngenxa yokuphulwa kwemithetho yolwaphulo-mthetho. Ezi nkomyusa zisebenza phantsi kwemithetho engqongqo elungiselelwe ukukhusela amalungelo omgaqo-siseko abamangalelwa, kuquka ilungelo lokucebisa, ilungelo lokuya kwityala labagwebi, nokuzikhusela kwityala lolwaphulo-mthetho.
Iinkundla zezaphuli-mthetho zezezaphuli-mthetho zorhulumente nezorhulumente zisingatha ukwaphulwa komthetho wezaphuli-mthetho wesizwe, ngoxa iinkundla zezaphuli-mthetho zikarhulumente zigweba ukwaphula imithetho karhulumente. Uninzi lwamatyala olwaphulo-mthetho luvela kwiinkundla zikarhulumente.
Inkundla
Zonke ezinye iimeko zezoburhulumente, ezisukela kumatyala okungakhathali afana noDel Lago v.Smith ukuya kuqhawulo-mtshato kunye nokugcinwa kwabantwana, izirhumo neendawo, imiyalelo yokukhusela kunye nokunyanzeliswa kweesivumelwano zezoshishino. Iinkundla zamakhaya zicombulula iimbambano phakathi kwamaqela azimeleyo, ezisenokuquka abantu, amashishini, okanye amaqumrhu karhulumente. Ngokungafaniyo namatyala olwaphulo-mthetho, ngokusuka kumatyala afuna imbuyekezo okanye ukwenza okuthile kwelinye iqela kunokuba zisohlwayelwe ngezenzo zolwaphulo-mthetho.
Iinkundla zamakhaya zisingatha iinguqu ezininzi, kuquka iimbambano zesivumelwano, iingxelo zokonzakalisa umntu, iimbambano zempahla, imicimbi yemisebenzi, kunye nokubekwa kwetyala leshishini. Umgangatho wobungqina kwiimeko zamakhaya udla ngokuba "ngubungqina obubalulekileyo," obungaphantsi kunobo "bungathandabuzi ngokusengqiqweni" umgangatho ofunekayo kwiimeko zolwaphulo-mthetho.
Iinkundla Zentsapho
Iinkundla zentsapho zisebenza kakhulu kwimicimbi ebandakanya ulwalamano lwasekhaya nabantwana. Ezi nkundla zinegunya kuqhawulo-mtshato, ukugcinwa kwabantwana kunye nokuxhaswa kwemicimbi, ukukhuliswa kwabantwana, iimbambano zokuzalwa, imiyalelo yogonyamelo lwasekhaya, namatyala olwaphulo-mthetho akhuselweyo abantwana. Iinkundla zentsapho zidla ngokusebenzisa iinkqubo ezikhethekileyo kwaye zisenokukwazi ukufumana iinkonzo zentlalo-ntle, abalamleli, nezinye izinto ezilungiselelwe ukuhlangabezana neemfuno ezikhethekileyo zeentsapho ezisengxakini.
Iinkundla eziqulunqileyo
Iinkundla ezilawula imicimbi enxulumene nemizi yabantu abafileyo, kuquka ukuqinisekiswa kwemimiselo, ulawulo lwezabelo, ukutyunjwa kwabagcini-mthetho kubantu abadala abakhubazekileyo, kunye neenqanawa zokubonelela.
Iinkundla Zemali
Kukho iinkundla ezingama-90 ezirhwebi eUnited States. Iinkundla zeBhanki ezirhwebi zinceda abantu namashishini angakwaziyo ukuhlawula amatyala abo ukuba bafumane isiqalo esitsha. Ezi nkundla zelifa lemveli zikhethekileyo zisingatha amatyala phantsi kweBhankiprotein, zinika abantu kunye namashishini asebenza ngendlela yokulungisa amatyala abo okanye izinto zabo zorhwebo ngendlela elungeleleneyo ngoxa zikhusela amalungelo abo batyalayo.
Iinkundla Zolawulo Nezigwebo
Iinkundla zolawulo neenkundla zisingatha iimbambano ezibandakanya amasebe karhulumente kunye nemicimbi yowiso-mthetho. La maqumrhu aneziqu ezikhethekileyo angasingatha imicimbi enjengeembambano zerhafu, imicimbi yokufuduka, imbuyekezo yabasebenzi, kunye nocelomngeni kwizigqibo zamasebe. Nangona zingasoloko zijongwa njengenxalenye yesebe eligwebayo, ezi nkundla zifeza indima ebalulekileyo ekucombululeni iimbambano phakathi kwabemi kunye namaqumrhu karhulumente.
Iinkundla Ezincinane
Amatyala amaninzi agcina iinkundla ezikhethekileyo zolawulo olulinganiselweyo lwezikhundla, njengeenkundla zezentengiso, iinkundla zenkundla zolutsha, kunye neenkundla ezincinane. Iinkundla ezincinane zinikela inkqubo elula, engacwangciswanga yokucombulula iimbambano ezibandakanya iimali ezincinane. Ezi ntwazana azifuni magqwetha, zisebenzisa iinkqubo ezimiselwe phantsi kwemijelo, kwaye zizimisele ukulungiselela ukuphunyezwa kobulungisa obukhawulezileyo, kwiimpikiswano zemihla ngemihla ezinjengeempikiswano zemali, izikhalazo zabathengi, neempikiswano ezingezo zomnqophiso ezincinane.
Iinkundla Zomanyano Ezikhethekileyo
Inkqubo karhulumente iquka iinkundla eziliqela ezinegunya elikhethekileyo. INkundla ye-U.S. inguMphathiswa weNtlanganiso weZizwe Ezimanyeneyo omiswe nguMongameli. Ulawulo lwenkundla lunwenwela kulo lonke elaseUnited States kwaye lukwagunyaziswe ukuba luquleze amatyala kumazwe asemzini. Inkundla inegunya elipheleleyo lokulawula ukugqiba nasiphi na isenzo soburhulumente ngokuchasene neUnited States, amagosa ayo, okanye amaqumrhu ayo aphuma kuwo nawuphi na umthetho onxulumene norhwebo lwamazwe ngamazwe.
Inkundla yerhafu yase-U.S. ineeNkundla ezili-19 ezimiselweyo. Abahlawula irhafu bangaphikisana ngemibandela yerhafu enqunyulwa nguMphathiswa weNkundla yeNkxaso ngaphambi kokuhlawula inani lempikiswano. Ulawulo lwenkundla lukwaquka ukudluliswa kwetyala, iintlobo ezithile zemigwebo yokurhoxa, iindleko zolawulo neyokuqokelela kunye nohlolo lwezenzo ezithile zombutho, njl.njl.
Ukuqonda Isityholo: Igunya Leenkundla
Ukubekwa ityala kweenkundla kuyinxalenye esisiseko yenkqubo yokugweba, ibhekisela kwigunya lenkundla lokuva nokugqiba amatyala. Kuquka iindidi ezimbini eziphambili: ulawulo lomntu onegunya kunye nolawulo lomntu. Ukuqonda igunya lolawulo kubalulekile kuba ukuqokelela ityala enkundleni engenagunya elifanelekileyo kungaphumela ekugxothweni, ukuchitha ixesha kunye nobuncwane.
Umgwebo Oyintloko
Ulawulo lwesihloko ligunya lenkundla lokukhupha uhlobo oluthile lwento nokunika unyango olufunekayo. Inkundla kufuneka inegunya lokungena kumgwebo osemthethweni, onyanzelekileyo kwingxelo ethile. Olu hlobo lolawulo lubhekisela kwigunya lenkundla lokuva iindidi ezithile zamatyala asekelwe kwindlela ekhoyo okanye kwimibandela engokwasemthethweni ebandakanyekileyo.
Iinkundla zomanyano ziinkundla ezilawula igunya elilinganiselweyo. Ukuzisa isenzo kwinkundla yesizwe, umchasi-mthetho kufuneka afumane isiseko solawulo lomGaqo-siseko okanye lwequmrhu lolawulo lwenkundla yesizwe ukuze aphulaphule ityala. Ngokwahlukileyo koko, iinkundla zeli lizwe ngokuqhelekileyo zinegunya elibanzi lombandela kwaye zinokuva iindidi ezininzi zamatyala ngaphandle kokuba zivalwe ngumthetho okanye zinikwe kuphela ziinkundla zesizwe.
Isigqibo Sobuqu
Ulawulo lobuqu lugunya lenkundla kumaqela athile. Inkundla yaseKhalifoniya ayinakubopha ummangalelwa ongenalunxibelelwano eKhalifoniya. Zombini mazihlulwe ukuze inkundla ive ityala kunye nemithetho enyanzelekileyo. Ulawulo lobuqu luqinisekisa ukuba iinkundla zisebenzisa igunya kubantu ngabanye kuphela kunye nemikhosi enxulumene ngokwaneleyo nendawo yenkundla, ukukhusela abamangalelwa ekunyanzelweni ukuba banganyanzeleka ukuba bangene kwii-parigate ekude okanye kwii-forum ezingafanelekanga ngaphandle kobulungisa obufanelekileyo.
Uvavanyo Loqobo Noluthe tye
Ulawulo loqobo kunye negunya lolawulo lukwazezinye iintlobo zolawulo. Inkundla yolawulo lokuqala iva amatyala njengoko eqaliswa kuqala ngumcukucezi, kodwa inkundla yolawulo lwe-appellete ingasiva isenzo emva kokuba inkundla yolawulo lokuqala (okanye inkundla esezantsi ye-appellate) iva lo mba. Lo mahluko ubalulekile ekuqondeni indlela amatyala ahamba ngayo kwinkqubo yokulawula.
Inkonzo equlunqweyo neququzelelayo
Kukho ulawulo olupheleleyo apho kunokuthi kubekho inkqubo yenkundla enye kuphela eva amatyala athile. Amatyala eBhankippacy, asemthethweni, kunye namatyala achasene namalungelo oluntu kuphela. Uqhawulo-mtshato, ukugcinwa kwabantwana, kunye nokugcinwa kwe-probate zingurhulumente kuphela. Xa iinkundla zinegunya elipheleleyo, amaqela akanakukhetha ngendawo anokuyibhala kuyo imibango yawo.
Ulawulo lwamaxesha ahlukeneyo lukhona apho zombini iinkundla zorhulumente nezorhulumente zinegunya lokuva uhlobo olunye lwetyala. Amatyala olawulo oluhlukeneyo angomzekelo oqhelekileyo. Impikiswano phakathi kwamaqela avela kumazwe awahlukeneyo ingagcinwa kwinkundla yesizwe okanye yesizwe, kwaye ukhetho sisigqibo esiqulunqiweyo soluvo. Oku kuguquka kuvumela amagqwetha ukuba aqwalasele izinto ezifana nemithetho yeprocedtura, amaqula eejaji, kunye nobuchule bokugweba xa egqiba ukuba aphi na apho afanele aqule ngakhona.
Inkqubela Esemthethweni: Ukusuka Kukubhaqo Ukuya Kwisigqibo
Ukuqonda amacandelo asemthethweni kunceda abantu balungiselele oko banokukulindela xa kuthethwa ityala lasenkundleni.
Ukuqalisa Ityala
Ityala elisemthethweni liqala xa iqela lifaka isikhalazo, isicelo okanye izityholo kwinkundla efanelekileyo. Kwityala lasekuhlaleni, ummangalelwa ufaka isikhalazo esichaza izityholo ezingokwasemthethweni nesokuhlangulwa okufunwayo. Kwityala lolwaphulo-mthetho, urhulumente ubeka iifayile ezimangalele ummangalelwa, ngokuqhelekileyo emva kokuphengululwa yaye kwiimeko ezinzulu, ityala elizukileyo labachophele kwinkundla yamatyala.
Ijelo lokuqala kufuneka liquke ulwazi olwaneleyo ukumisa igunya lenkundla, ukuchonga amaqela, ukuchaza isiseko esisemthethweni sezibhengezo, nokuchaza isicombululo esiceliweyo. Inkonzo efanelekileyo yenkqubo iqinisekisa ukuba onke amaqela afumana isaziso sezenzo kunye nethuba lokuphendula.
Inkqubela-phambili yangaphambili
Emva kokuba ityala libekwe, amatheko abandakanyeka kwiingxoxo zangaphambi kwetyala eziquka ukuthatha inyathelo, ukufumanisa, kunye nokuphendulana. Ukuxilongwa kuvumela amaqela ukuba aqokelele ubungqina ngokusetyenziswa kogcino-lwazi, ukuncina, izicelo zamaxwebhu, nezinye izixhobo zophando. Iinkqubo zovavanyo lwangaphambili zingathetha ngemibandela ebhaliweyo, zifune ukugxothwa kwemibango, okanye zicele ugwebo loshwankathelo xa kungekho mpikiswano yokwenene.
Iinkundla ezininzi zikhuthaza okanye zifuna ezinye iindlela zesigqibo ezifana nokuchophela okanye ukugweba ngaphambi kokuba kuthethwe ityala. Ezi nkqubo zinokubanceda abantu bafikelele kwiindawo ezihlala abantu ngaphandle kwexesha, iindleko, nokungaqiniseki ngetyala.
Ukuvavanywa
Kuzo zonke iimeko, inkundla yamatyala – jikelele kunye nenkundla yabachopheli-tyala labemi – kufuneka igqibe imicimbi yenyaniso. Ebudeni betyala, amaqela anikela ubungqina, amangqina, kwaye aphumeze iimpikiswano ezingokwasemthethweni. Kwityala labachopheli-tyala, abachopheli-mgwebi bamisela ii-nyani xa umgwebi emisela imithetho kwimibandela engokwasemthethweni kwaye benikela imiyalelo engomthetho osebenzayo. Kwizigwebo zebhedri, umgwebi usebenza njengendoda efumana inyaniso kunye nomenzi wesigqibo esisemthethweni.
Iimvavanyo zilandela iinkqubo ezicwangcisiweyo ezilungiselelwe ukuqinisekisa ukuba kulungile kwaye kukhuselwe amalungelo abantu abachaphazelekayo. Ezi nkqubo ziquka ukuvulwa kwezimvo, ukunikelwa kobungqina, ukuvavanywa kwamangqina, kunye neempikiswano zokuvala. Iqela elinobunzima bobungqina kufuneka linike ubungqina obaneleyo bokuhlangabezana nomgangatho ofanelekileyo . "Ngaphandle kokuthandabuza okusengqiqweni kwiimeko zolwaphulo-mthetho okanye ukuqwalaselwa kobungqina kwiimeko ezininzi zasekuhlaleni.
Intshukumo yesiphelo kunye nomgwebo
Emva kokuvavanywa, amaqela angafaka iifayile zokuthatha inyathelo emva kwetyala acel ’ umngeni isigqibo okanye afune enye into ekhululekileyo. Ukuba ezi ndawo azivunywanga okanye azigcinwanga, inkundla ingena kwisigwebo esisekelwe kwiziphumo zetyala. Kwimicimbi yasekuhlaleni, umgwebo ungaquka ukonakaliswa kwemali, ukuthomalaliswa kwemali, okanye ukuthomalaliswa kwemiqathango. Kwimeko zolwaphulo-mthetho, ukugwetywa kwetyala kukhokelela ekugwetyweni, apho inkundla imisela isohlwayo esifanelekileyo kwimigaqo yemithetho.
Izibheno
Iinkundla eziphandayo zinokugqiba kuphela imicimbi yomthetho eyaphunyezwa yinkundla yamatyala ngokusesikweni nangokufanelekileyo? Izigwebo ezingonelanga ngezigwebo zamatyala zingabhena kwiinkundla eziphakamileyo, nangona iinkundla ezigwebayo zidla ngokuhlola kuphela imibuzo engokwasemthethweni kunokuba ziphinde zifumane iingxelo ezichanekileyo. Iinkundla zezicelo zingasiqinisekisa isigqibo senkundla esezantsi, siphendule, okanye ziphinde zilimise eli tyala ngenxa yokuqhubeka kwetyala elivisisanayo nesigqibo senkundla yenkundla yetyala.
47 yamazwe norhulumente wasekuhlaleni bavumela ubuncinane ukuba kubekho isibheno esinye sokusuka kwisigwebo sokugqibela, esithetha ukuba inkundla efumana isibheno kufuneka igqibe ngesibheno emva kokuba sifunyanwe kwaye sixatyiswa kakuhle. Amaphondo amathathu awanikezi lungelo kwisibheno sokuqala. Kunoko, anika kuphela ilungelo lokucela ilungelo lokufumana isibheno.
Imigaqo Eyintloko Elawula Inkqubo Yogwebo
Ukhanyo lwenkwenkwezi
Umgaqo wokujonga udecis uqinisekisa ukuba iinkundla "zimele zilandele izigwebo zangaphambili xa iingongoma ezifanayo zivela kwakhona ekuhlaziyweni. Le mfundiso ikhuthaza ukumanyana, ukuxelwa kwangaphambili, nokuzinza komthetho ngokufuna ukuba iinkundla zilandele imizekeliso emiselwe kwiimeko zangaphambili nezibakala ezifanayo kunye neembambano zomthetho.
Ngokuqhelekileyo, iinkundla ezisezantsi (iinkundla zamatyala) ziyabophelela amaqela abandakanyekileyo kodwa akukho zinkundla zamatyala nanye ephakamileyo. Iinkundla ezigwebayo zilandela isikhokelo sazo (ngomgaqo wokujongwa ngokuthe tyaba) kunye neenkundla ezisezantsi eziphantsi eziphantsi kolawulo lwazo kodwa azibopheleli ezinye iinkundla zenkundla ezifanayo okanye kumgangatho ophezulu. Ukuqonda indlela imizekelo esebenzayo iya kunceda ngayo ixela kwangaphambili indlela iinkundla eziya kulawula ngayo kwimibandela efanayo kwixesha elizayo.
Ilindelekile
Isiqinisekiso somgaqo-siseko senkqubo efanelekileyo siqinisekisa ukuba abantu baphathwa ngokufanelekileyo kwiinkundla zomthetho. Inkqubo efunekayo iquka ukukhuselwa ngokwesithethe, njengesaziso kunye nethuba lokuviwa, kunye nokukhuselwa kwemithetho engekho semthethweni. Iinkundla kufuneka zilandele iinkqubo ezimisiweyo zize zihlonele amalungelo asisiseko xa kuthethwa amatyala.
Ukhuseleko olulinganayo
Umgaqo wokukhusela okulinganayo ufuna ukuba iinkundla ziphathe abantu ngokufanayo ababekwe phantsi komthetho.
Inkululeko Yomthetho
Ukuzimela ngokwamatyala kukhusela iinkundla kwimpembelelo engafanelekanga yezinye ii-ofisi zezoburhulumente, iingcinezelo zobupolitika, okanye iimfuno zobuqu. Abagwebi bamaFederal bafumana izindululo zobomi bonke kunye nenkxaso yemivuzo yokuzikhusela kwimpindezelo yezobupolitika. Uzimele-mthetho wezomthetho ukhuselwa kwiinkqubo ezahlukeneyo, kuquka amagama amade, unyulo olugcinwayo, okanye iinkqubo zokumiswa ezilungiselelwe ukuthomalalisa impembelelo yezobupolitika.
Amacebiso Asebenzisekayo Ekumiseleni Inkqubo Yogwebo
Ukuqonda Amalungelo Akho Asemthethweni
Ukwazi amalungelo akho asemthethweni kumisela isiseko sokusebenzisana ngokunempumelelo nenkqubo yokugweba. Amalungelo oMgaqo-siseko aquka inkululeko yokuthetha, inkululeko yonqulo, ukukhuselwa ekuphandweni ngokungekho ngqiqweni nasekuxhuzuleni, ilungelo lokululeka kwiimeko zolwaphulo-mthetho, nelungelo lokuqhuba inkqubo efanelekileyo. Amalungelo okumisela ahlukeneyo kuxhomekeka kumongo osemthethweni kodwa asenokuquka ukukhuselwa kwemisebenzi, amalungelo abathengi, namalungelo omthetho wentsapho.
Ukufundiswa ngamalungelo akhethekileyo kwimeko yakho kukunika amandla okuqonda ukuba amkelekile nini na loo malungelo yaye uthathe amanyathelo afanelekileyo.
Ixesha Lokufuna Icebiso Elingokwasemthethweni
Ngoxa eminye imicimbi yomthetho inokusingathwa ngaphandle kwegqwetha, iimeko ezininzi zingenelwa ngokuphawulekayo kwicebiso lomthetho elingoogqirha. Qwalasela igqwetha xa ujongene nezityholo zolwaphulo-mthetho, ukubekwa kwetyala okuntsonkothileyo, ukuxatyiswa kwemali okubalulekileyo, okanye iinkqubo ezingokwasemthethweni ezingaqhelekanga.
Abo bangakwaziyo ukuthenga amagqwetha azimeleyo, imibutho yoncedo olusemthethweni, iinkqubo ze-probo, kunye nesiluleko senkundla esimiselwe kwiimeko zolwaphulo-mthetho banika imvume esemthethweni. Iintlanganiso ezininzi ze-bar zinika igqwetha iinkonzo ezinokudibanisa abantu namagqwetha asebenzisa imigaqo-mthetho.
Ukulungiselela Ukuqhubeka Kwenkundla
Ukulungiselela ngokucokisekileyo kuphucula iziphumo eziphawulekayo kwimigaqo-nkqubo esemthethweni. Hlanganisa uze ulungelelanise onke amaxwebhu anxulumeneyo, kuquka izivumelwano, iileta, iilisithi, iifoto, kunye nobunye ubungqina obuxhasa isikhundla sakho. Yenza uludwe lweziganeko ukuze uqonde iziganeko ezihambelanayo.
Ukuba uya kungqina, lungiselela ngokuqwalasela izibakala zetyala lakho kunye nokukhangela imibuzo ongayijonga. Nxiba ngokufanelekileyo ukubonakala kwenkundla, ufike kwangoko, uze uzise imibhalo yawo onke amaxwebhu afanelekileyo. Ukuqonda isimilo senkundla yenkundla ```Imbeko yakho,'' ime xa umgwebi engena okanye amagqabi, kwaye uthethe ngokucacileyo xa ubuzwa imibuzo ngenkundla kwaye ungayiphembelela ngokuchanekileyo intlonelo ngenkundla kwaye ungayiva indlela oqondwa ngayo.
Ukuqonda Iinkundla Neenkundla Ezifileyo
Iinkundla zisebenza ngokwemithetho engqongqo kunye nemiqathango ecwangcisiweyo. Ukungawulandeli ummiselo wexesha lokugcina okanye ukusilela ukulandela iinkqubo ezifanelekileyo kungaphumela ekugxothweni kwemiqathango, imigwebo engagqibekanga, okanye ezinye iziphumo ezingalunganga. Ukwazi imithetho esebenzayo, esoloko ifumaneka kwii-website zenkundla okanye kwiofisi yomabhalane wenkundla.
Ukuba uzimele ngokwakho (umelo lweprojekthi), sebenzisa luncedo loovimba abenzelwe ukunceda abaxhasi abazimeleyo. Iinkundla ezininzi zinikela amaziko oncedo lwazo, iipakethi, kunye nezinto zokufundisa. Noko ke, yazi ukuba abagwebi abanako ukunikela icebiso elisemthethweni nabasebenzi benkundla abanawo amandla alinganiselweyo okunceda ngemibuzo engokwalatha amatyala.
Ukugcina Iingxelo Ezichanileyo
Gcina iingxelo ezineenkcukacha zokunxibelelana okunxulumene nombandela wakho womthetho, kuquka imihla, amaxesha, abathathi-nxaxheba, kunye nentsingiselo yeencoko okanye iziganeko. Gcina imibhalo yawo onke amaxwebhu agcinwe enkundleni kwaye afunyenwe kwamanye amaqela. Lungiselela ngendlela elungeleleneyo ukuze ufumane inkcazelo ngokukhawuleza xa kufuneka.
Iindleko zoxwebhu ezinxulumene nombandela wakho womthetho, njengoko ezinye iindleko zinokubuyiselwa ukuba uphumelele. Oku kuquka iindleko zefashoni, iindleko zomsebenzi, iindleko zoogcisa bokunikela ubungqina, kwaye kwezinye iimeko, iindleko zegqwetha.
Ukukhangela Enye Impikiswano
Phambi kokuba ulwenze uphakamiso, qwalasela ukuba iindlela zesinye isisombululo sempikiswano zingayicombulula ingxabano yakho ngokunempumelelo kwaye ngokunexabiso. I-CD ibandakanya iqela lesithathu elinobundindi elinceda ukuqhubana phakathi kwamaqela aphikisanayo. Uhlolo lubandakanya ukunikela imeko yakho kumphathi wesigqibo sobundilele ogunyazisayo okanye ongabopheleliyo kuxhomekeke kwisivumelwano.
Ezi zinye iindlela zisoloko zinika izisombululo ezikhawulezileyo, iindleko eziphantsi, ukuzifihla okuphezulu, neziphumo ezibhetyebhetye kakhulu kunezo ziko. Izivumelwano ezininzi ziquka izivakalisi ezinyanzelisayo zokukhupha ityala, kunye neenkundla ezifuna amaqela ukuba azame ukuzama ukuququzelela phambi kokuba aqhubeke ukuya kuvavanywa.
Ukuqonda Iindleko Zokuqhubeka Okusemthethweni
Imicimbi engokwasemthethweni ingabiza imali eninzi, ibandakanya iindleko zetyala, iindleko zegqwetha, iindleko zobungqina, nezinye iindleko. Ukuqonda iindleko ezinokwenzeka kuyakunceda wenze izigqibo ezithelekelelwayo zokungaphindwa kwemithetho nangendlela yokuqhuba inyathelo elisemthethweni. Amanye amagqwetha asebenza kumalungiselelo okuhlawula kwiimeko ezithile, intsingiselo yokuba afumana intlawulo kuphela ukuba ufumana ilahleko. Abanye bahlawula iiyure ezithile okanye imali ehlawulwa ngokucothayo kwiinkonzo ezithile.
Thetha kakuhle ngamalungiselelo omrhumo naliphi na igqwetha oliqeshileyo, uze ucele isivumelwano esibhaliweyo somrhumo esichaza umlinganiselo womelo kunye nemiyalelo yokuhlawula. Buza malunga neendleko ezongezelelekileyo nokuba ungakwazi kusini na ukuphinda ufumane iindleko zegqwetha ukuba uyaphumelela kwimeko yakho.
Ingxelo yenkundla kunye nezibonelelo ezifumana ulwazi
Iinkundla ezininzi ngoku zinikela uninzi lweencwadi ze-intanethi, kuquka ukulungisa amatyala, iikhalenda, imithetho yasekuhlaleni, iifomu nezinto zemfundo.
Ii-ofisi zomabhalane wenkundla zinganikela iinkcukacha malunga neenkqubo, iimfuno ezigciniweyo, kunye neendawo zenkundla, nangona zingenakunikela icebiso elingokwasemthethweni. Iindlu ezininzi zenkundla zikwanamathala eencwadi omthetho avulekileyo kuluntu, enika ukufumaneka kwezinto zophando ezisemthethweni yaye maxa wambi zincedwa ngabameli bomthetho.
Indima Yamaphulo Kwinkqubo Yezeejaji
I Juries idlala indima ebalulekileyo kwinkqubo yokugweba yaseMerika, inika inkqubo yokuthabatha inxaxheba ekulawuleni koluntu. Ilungelo lokuchophela amatyala liqinisekiswe ngumGaqo-siseko kwiimeko zolwaphulo-mthetho nakwizigwebo ezininzi zamakhaya. Ngokuqhelekileyo iiJulies ziquka abemi abachongiweyo abavela kuluntu abava ubungqina baze bagqibe imibuzo eyinyaniso.
Ukhetho
Abasebenzi bejaji abanokuba ngabanyulwa kuluhlu lobhaliso lwabavoti, iirekhodi zelayisense yokuqhuba, okanye ezinye imithombo ukwenza icandelo elinqumla uluntu. Ngexesha le-voir, amagqwetha kunye nabagwebi babuza imibuzo yokuba ngaba banokuchopha naluphi na ucalucalucalulo okanye ungquzulwano olunokuchaphazela amandla abo okusebenza ngokungakhethi. Ii-auttorney zingavavanya abaququzeleli bejaji ukuba babonisa ikhethe lokwenene, kwaye bafumana inani elisikelweyo leengxaki zokuzithethelela iijaji ngaphandle kokuchaza isizathu, ngokokungamiselanga kugwetyelwa.
Iziphumo
Emva kokuva bonke ubungqina nokwamkela imiyalelo engomthetho osebenzayo ovela kumgwebi, izigwebi zangasese ukuze zifikelele isigqibo. Kwizigwebo zolwaphulo-mthetho, izigqibo zimele zihlangane, nangona amanye amagunya evumela izigqibo ezingezizo ezipheleleyo kwiimeko ezithile. Amatyala amakhaya asenokufuna izigqibo ezimntwiswano okanye avumele izigqibo ezisekelwe kwimiqathango ephezulu, kuxhomekeke ekulawuleni nakuhlobo lwetyala.
Inkonzo kaJury imela umsebenzi wesizwe kunye nethuba lokuba nenxaxheba ngqo kwinkqubo yokugweba. Ngoxa ukusebenza kwinkundla yabachopheli-tyala kusenokuba kukuthatha ixesha yaye maxa wambi kucelw ’ umngeni, kunika abemi amava obuqu ngendlela iinkundla ezisebenza ngayo nendlela imigaqo esemthethweni esetyenziswa ngayo kwiimeko zeli hlabathi.
Uphuhliso Lwakutshanje Nocelomngeni Oluqhubekayo
Inkqubo yokugweba iyaqhubeka ibhenela ekuphenduleni kwinkqubela-phambili yobugcisa, iinguqu zentlalo, kunye nocelomngeni oluqhubekayo ekunikezeleni unikezelo lobulungisa. Iinkqubo ze-electronic, ii-metal, kunye neeplatfomu zesigqibo se-intanethi ziguqule indlela iinkundla ezisebenza ngayo, ingakumbi emva kwesifo se-COVID-19. Ezi zintsha ziye zaphucula ubuchule nokufumaneka kwazo kwiinkalo ezininzi, nangona ziphakamisa imibuzo malunga nokwahlulwa kwamanani nokulondolozwa kokhuseleko lwesithethe.
Ukufikelela kokusesikweni kuselucelomngeni olubalulekileyo, ekubeni abantu abaninzi bengakwazi ukufikelela kwizalathiso zomthetho kunye neenkqubo zenkundla ezilwa nokuthwaliswa kwetyala elinzima kunye noqoqosho olulinganiselweyo. Imigudu yokulungisa le mingeni iquka ukusetyenziswa kwemali engakumbi yoncedo olusemthethweni, iinkqubo ezenziwe lula kwiintlobo zemeko eziqhelekileyo, nokusetyenziswa okuthe kratya kobugcisa ukunciphisa iindleko nokuphucula ubuchule.
Iinkundla ezijongene neengxaki ezikhethekileyo, njengeenkundla zeziyobisi, iinkundla zempilo yengqondo, kunye neenkundla zamava, zimela iindlela ezintsha zokusingatha imicimbi esisiseko enegalelo kwiingxaki ezingokwasemthethweni. Ezi nkowamatyala zidibanisa ulawulo lwejaji neenkonzo zonyango kunye neenkqubo zokuxhasa, zizimisele ukunciphisa iinjongo zokuzikhulula kunye neziphumo ezisisiseko zeziyobisi, kunokuba zifake isohlwayo.
Imithombo yangaphandle yolunye ulwazi
Kubo bafuna inkcazelo eyongezelelekileyo ngenkqubo yokugweba, oovimba abaliqela abanegunya banikela ukhokelo olubanzi:
- I-website ye- ye-United States ye- ( www.ustouts.gov) inikela inkcazelo eninzi ngenkqubo yenkundla yequmrhu, kuquka oovimba bemfundo, iinkqubo zenkundla, kunye nokufikelela kwiingxelo zenkundla.
- Iziko lohlanga lweeNkundla zeRhulumente ( www.ncsc.org) linikezela ngoovimba malunga neenkqubo zenkundla yephondo, kuquka amanani, uphando, kunye noqheliso olungcono.
- I-website yakho yenkundla yenkundla yelizwe inika ulwazi oluchanekileyo kulawulo lwakho, kuquka imithetho yasekuhlaleni, iifomu, iindawo zenkundla, kunye nezibonelelo zoncedo lobuqu.
- I-Melikan Bar Association ( www.amaricanbar.org) inika oovimba bemfundo kawonke-wonke malunga namalungelo asemthethweni kunye nenkqubo yokugweba.
- [[NKQUBO:0] Intlangano yoncedo kwindawo yakho inganikela uncedo olusemthethweni olukhululekileyo okanye oluphantsi olufuna ukufaneleka kwabantu kunye nolwazi olumalunga nokufikelela kwiinkonzo ezisemthethweni.
Isiphelo: Zinike Amandla Ngolwazi
Inkqubo yokugweba isebenza njengesiseko sokucombulula iingxabano, sokukhusela amalungelo nokugcina umthetho kwibutho labantu elilawulwa ngedemokhrasi. Ngoxa ukuqhuba imicimbi yomthetho kusenokubonakala kudimaza, kuqonda isiseko seenkundla, iintlobo zamatyala eziwasingathayo, yaye iinkqubo ezilandelayo zinika abantu amandla okuba nenxaxheba ngokunempumelelo kwinkqubo yokusesikweni.
Enoba ubandakanyeke kwimbambano engokwasemthethweni, ukhonza njengelungu lejaji, okanye ufuna nje ukuwaqonda amalungelo akho neembopheleleko njengommi, ulwazi lwenkqubo yokugweba lubonakala luxabisekile. Ngokuqhelana neenkundla, ulawulo lokuqonda, ulungiselela ngokucokisekileyo amanyathelo asemthethweni, nokufuna isiluleko esifanelekileyo xa kuyimfuneko, unokuyilawula inkqubo yokugweba ngentembelo nangobuchule obungakumbi.
Inkqubo yokugweba ikho ekuncedeni uluntu ngokubala ngokunika izisombululo ezifanelekileyo, ezingakhethi buso zempikiswano ngokomthetho. Ukuthabatha ixesha lokuqonda indlela esebenza ngayo, ukuba buphi ubuncwane obukhoyo, nendlela yokukhusela izilangazelelo zakho ezingaphakathi kwayo kumela ukuveliswa okubalulekileyo kubuchule bakho bokufikelela kokusesikweni nokusebenzisa amalungelo akho asemthethweni. Njengoko inkqubo iqhubeka iguqula ize ilungelelanise iimeko eziguqukayo, ukuhlala wazi kakuhle ngenkqubela kunye nobuncwane obukhoyo kuya kukunceda ukuqinisekisa ukuba unokubandakanyeka ngokunempumelelo kwiinkundla xa kuyimfuneko.
Khumbula ukuba nangona olu khokelo lunikela inkcazelo jikelele ngenkqubo yokugweba, iimeko ezithile ezingokwasemthethweni zifuna uhlalutyo lomntu ngamnye yaye ngokufuthi icebiso elingokwasemthethweni. Xa ujamelene neengxaki zomthetho, qhagamshelana namagqwetha afanelekayo anokunikela ukhokelo oluvisisana neemeko zakho ezithile kunye negunya lakho. Inkqubo yokugweba, nangona intsonkothile, ihlala ifumaneka kwabo bazinika ixesha lokuyiqonda baze bafune uncedo olufanelekileyo xa kuyimfuneko.