Isiseko somGaqo-siseko sokulingana

Isiqinisekiso sokulingana simi njengenye yemigaqo ehlala ihleli kwaye iphikiswana kumthetho-siseko waseMelika. Ngoxa isibhengezo senkululeko savakalisa ukuba bonke abantu badalwa ngokulinganayo, kwathatha phantse inkulungwane ukuze kufumaneke intsingiselo ecacileyo kumGaqo-siseko. Ukwenziwa kweSindululo seshumi elinesine soMphetho-Mgaqo-siseko ngo1868 siphawulwe njengendawo yokutshintsha, ukuvelisa iNkundla ka-Celasko-mthetho elinganayo, nto leyo eyayalela ukuba akukho rhulumente oza kukhanye nomntu onegunya elilinganayo lokhuseleko lwemithetho. Esi sivakalise isigwebo esinye sibonelo sivelisa ukukhuselwa okungaphezulu kweNkuQongomGaqo-siseko esimalunga naliphi naliphi na elinye ilungiselelo lomgaqo-siseko kwaye sisebenze njengesiphambili sesithutholo esiphambili sokuhambela kwamalungelo amakhaya anqamle izizunge izizukulwana ezilandele izizukulwana ezilandelene.

Imeko engokwembali yoMphetho-Mgaqo-nkqubo weshumi elinesine ubalulekile ukuze kuqondwe ukutshayelelwa kwawo. Ukulungiswa kweziphumo zemfazwe yamakhaya, kwakucetyelwe ukukhusela amalungelo abantu base-Afrika abasandul' ukukhululwa nxamnye nomthetho wezobutshaba. Icandelo Lokuqala, eliqulethe i-Seed Procession Clausle kunye ne-Mostime Protection Claus Protection, zenzelwe ukwenza ukuba imithetho esemthethweni yemithetho esekelwe kwimithetho yamaLungelo kaNoval Are ka-18666. Kodwa abafaki benkqubo yokulungisa i-antempmplix basebenzisa ngabom ulwimi olubanzi, kwaye iNkundla ePhakamileyo iye yatolika i-Act Claus Claus efikelela ngaphaya komongolwalu lulu lwasekuqaleni localu lulu localu, iso olusekelwe kwiint, kwiintcape, kwiint, engowe, engongoweyo, engekho sini.

Ukuchazwa kweNkundla ngokulinganayo akukhange kuhlale kungqinelane. Izigqibo zokuqala ngasekupheleni kwenkulungwane yeshumi elinethoba nasekuqaleni kwamashumi amabini zisoloko zishwankathela ukufikelela kwenguquko. ICivil Rights Cases ka1883] yamatyala akwa-1883] axhasa ngokuxhathisa imithetho yesizwe ethintela ucalucalulo lwangasese, ukudibanisa u-Claus elinganayo ukuba avume isenzo. Pyv.[FLT][FLT] [[566]] [186]) ngokuxhase ukucalulwa kohlanga phantsi kwemfundiso eyahlukileyo kodwa elinganayo, umthetho onokuthi ume phantse ngamashumi amathandathu eminyaka. Ukuqonda okuzifundiswa kwabafundi kubaluleke kakhulu ngenxa yentsingiselo ye-gropozi ye-gnthi ye-graclate, i-ognogn, i-ognog.

Izinto Ezisisiseko: Indlela Eya kuBrown

Plesty v. Ferguson (1896) nemfundiso eyahlukileyo

Akukho kuqonda okulinganayo okupheleleyo ngaphandle kokungqubana . Pnety v. Ferguson. Homer Plegton, owayengowesibhozo esimhlophe nomnyama omnye, wacel ’ umngenise ngabom iLouisiana i-Metavia ngokungavumi ukushiya inqwelo-ndlela emhlophe kuphela. Inkundla ephakamileyo, kwisigqibo esibhalwe nguMgwebi uHenry Bills Brown, iphakamisa umthetho, iqikelelo lokuba i-gxuba lingathethi ukuba umgangatho ophantsi wohlanga olunye ixesha elide njengoko izibonelo ezazilungiselelwe zazinjalo. UJastical Harlans wavelisa umgca odumileyo okhuselweyo womGaqo-om wezo.

Isiphumo esisebenzisekayo se Planety yayikukuqinisekisa inkqubo ebanzi yobuhlanga obusezantsi ngaphaya koMzantsi. Amaziko ahlukeneyo emfundo, ezothutho, izindlu, kunye neendawo zokuhlala zikawonke wonke phantse angazange alingana kwixabiso okanye inkxaso yemali. Le mfundiso yaqhubeka iminyaka emalunga namashumi amathandathu, ixhaswe kukusondela kweNkundla kumandla karhulumente kunye nokufundwa kwayo okunciphilela kwe 145th Amendment. INaACP Ukhuselo lwasemthethweni, ikhokelwa nguThuphetho olulungileyo, ichithe amashumi eminyaka enika ingxelo engqinela ukuba iindawo ezahlukeneyo azifani, zipheleli kwisigqibo sesaziko sezelelo. Brown. v VFFFF:3.

IKraemer (1948) neSizwe Esenza Imfundiso

Phambi [[FLT: 0] Brown, iNkundla yathatha inyathelo elibalulekileyo ekuthinteleni ucalulo lobuhlanga . [[FLT]] shelley v. Kraemer[. Le tyala lithetha ngeminqophiso ethintelweyo yobuhlanga, izivumelwano zabucala ezithintela ukuthengiswa kwempahla ku-Amerika. Inkundla yabambelela kwisivumelwano sobucala, ukugcinwa kwemithetho yezo zivumelwano ezibekwe phantsi kwesenzo sokhuselo esilinganayo. [FLTLT] [FLT] [FLT] [iiiwith:5]. Le komiti ayizange isohlwaye iminqophiso ecacileyo, kodwa yayenza ukuba ingasebenzi kwinkundla esebenzayo, ukuphatha okunelisayo.

Uphawu lweNkundla Ephakamileyo olungomgangatho

Brown v. ibhodi yemfundo (1954): Ukufa kokungalingani

Brown v. Ibhodi yemfundo [[FLT]] ijongwa ngokubanzi njengesona sigqibo sibalulekileyo seNkundla ePhakamileyo yenkulungwane yamashumi amabini. Ityala laqinisa imiqobo emihlanu eyahlukeneyo ukuze ikwazi ukunikezela izikolo zikawonke-wonke eKansas, eMzantsi Carolina, eDirraviya, naseSithilini saseColumbia. IJastial Earl Warren, ibhala inkundla yezokolo ezingqukuva, ibambelele kwinqithi yemfundo ezingqukuva, isithi ingenamyo kwaye yaphazamisa uKhuselo olulinganayo luka Claus. Inkundla yaxhomeke kwinxenye kubungqina benzululwazi yezenzululwazi ebonakalisa ukuchaphaza izifo zengqondo kubantwana base-Afrika.

Isigqibo sarhoxa imfundiso eyahlukileyo kodwa elinganayo saza saqalisa uthotho lweziganeko eziza kuguqula ibutho lamaMelika. Ukuzalisekisa kwabonakala kunzima kakhulu kunemithetho ngokwayo, kwaye iNkundla yakhupha isigqibo sesibini [[FLT: 0] Brown II[ (1955] efuna ukususwa kwequmrhu ngesantya sangaphakathi, ibinzana elivumela ukuxhathisa okukhulu. Lo mba waMazantsi ubandakanyeke ngokuchasene noxhathiso olukhulu, ukuvala izikolo nokumisela imithetho yokuphepha ulawulo. Yathatha enye i-Brown kunye namaLungelo aphakathi e-194494 ukuze iqalise ukuhlanganisa okunelisa. ] I-ISVSTIOLD [FLD:3] eli candelo lihlala liseko lwesicwangciso esineyo sokukhusela sangoku kunye nemithetho yoluntu.

Korematsu v. waseUnited States (1944): A Epory Tale

Nayiphina ingxubusho ebanzi yokulingana kufuneka ivume ukungaphumeleli kweNkundla. [FLT]. IUnited States[FLT]], iNkundla yaxhasa ukunyanzeleka kwamaJaphani aseMelika ngexesha lemfazwe yehlabathi II, isebenzisa umgangatho wophando olungqongqo lokuba urhulumente aneliseke. Isigqibo sihlala njengesilumkiso ngamalungelo omgaqo-siseko ngexesha lengxaki yesizwe kwaye siye sagxekwa ngokubanziwa kakhulu. Yathiwa ngokunempumelelo [[FLTL:]TMG. v[FLT]. Hawaii[FLT:]

Virginia (1967): Ilungelo Lokutshata Ngaphandle Kwemiqathango Yobuhlanga

ngokufaka ityala . Virginia[FLT]], iNkundla ePhakamileyo ngamxhelo mnye yawubetha uMthetho we- Virginia we-Intelligence ye-Rounity, owawalelayo umtshato wezizwe ngezizwe. URichard noMildred Longlie, indoda emhlophe nebhinqa elimnyama, bagwetyelwe igwetyelwe unyaka entolongweni ngenxa yokutshata eWashington, D.C., yaza yahlala eVirginia. Inkundla yathi imithetho ye-Okthi ye-Oldicom) iyawuthintela uClaus noMgaqo-nkqubo we-Idminia Elinganayo.

Isigqibo sasinemilinganiso emininzi ebalulekileyo. Okokuqala, iNkundla yakhaba impikiswano yokuba ukhuseleko olulinganayo lwanelisekile kuba umthetho wawusebenza ngokulinganayo kuzo zombini iintlanga, iphawula ukuba ukwahlulwa kohlanga kwakuphantsi kovavanyo oluqinileyo. Okwesibini, iNkundla yawuvuma umtshato njengowona ubalulekileyo phantsi kwe-CST Process Claus, umgaqo oya kuthi kamva ungqineke ugxekwa kumatyala omtshato afanayo. Isigqibo esiwiso sityhatheze imithetho elwanisayo ne-miscegen kumazwe alishumi elinesithandathu asazigcina kwaye asusa intsika ephakamileyo emhlophe kumthetho waseMelika.

Umgangatho weYunivesithi yaseKhalifoniya v. Bakke (1978)

Isigqibo sokuvuma safikelela kwiNkundla . [IiRegents zeYunivesithi yaseCalifornia v. Bakke , isigqibo esophukileyo esavelisa iimbono ezintandathu ezahlukeneyo. INkundla yabamba ukuba imiqathango yohlanga yayingamkeleki kodwa inokuthi uhlanga lungathathwa njengefekta enye phakathi kwezigqibo ezininzi ezivunyiweyo. IJaji Lewis Powell's ichaza uluvo lwemfundo ephezulu njengenzala egqithisileyo enokuthi ithethelele imigaqo engxamkelwe lizingqondweni zohlanga. Esi sigqibo samisela inkqubo yokuzinzisa izenzo ze-jurispludec kwiminyaka elandelayo engamashumi amane anesihlanu de kufike isigqibo seNkuNkugqibelelo lweNkundla [FT] [FT] [FF] ye-Genegnoid]

Umgangatho ophezulu wecandelo (1973) kunye noBungalingani bomgangatho

[[NTLT: 0] R. [[FLT]] ikhunjulwa ngokuyintloko njengendawo yobuqu nenkqubo efunekayo, imibuzo yokulingana yaxhonywa kakhulu kwimeko. INkundla yaqonda ukuba amandla okulawula ubomi bokuzala abalulekile kumabhinqa ekuthabatheni inxaxheba kubomi bentlalo noboqoqosho kwimicimbi elinganayo namadoda. Isigqibo saseka isiqu esincinane sesiseko sobucala somfazi silinganisa ilungelo lobuqu lomntu nxamnye nezilangazelelo zikarhulumente kwimpilo kunye nobomi. [[FLT] [FLT:]] [FLT] [5] [3] [3] [3] kunye nemithetho yoMhlanga] [R3] [3]

I-United States v. Windsor (2013): Isaziso soManyano lomtshato ofanayo

United States v. Umoya [[FLT]] ucel ’ umngeni icandelo 3 lokhuselo lomtshato (DOMA), elichaza umtshato wesizwe njengomanyano lwendoda nebhinqa. Edith Windsor noThea Spyer babetshate eCanada kwaye behlala eNew York, eyathi yawuqonda umtshato wabo. Xa u-Speter wafa, uWinds wanyanzeleka ukuba ahlawule ngaphezu kwama-3,3,3,000 kwirhafutho yelizwe ngenxa yokuba iDoMA yathintela inkonzo yaseMzandleni we-Inteni ebhankini ukuba ingawuboni umtshato wabo. Inkundla ephakamileyo yabetha iCandelo 3 njenge-Creast - Classiste, eyayinokwahlulwa ngurhulumente ongorhulumente ongomthetho osemthethweni osemthethweni osemthethweni.

Isenzo: Esi sigqibo sabuyisela iingenelo zikarhulumente kumawaka ezibini ezitshatileyo ezisemthethweni kwaye samisela iqonga kwisigqibo seNkundla kamva sokulingana komtshato. iSigqibo sokulinganisa:[ Saphawula ixesha lokuqala iNkundla ivuma ukuba imithetho ejolise kumadoda angafanayo kunye noobhinqini-ma banokungqubana nemithetho esemthethweni yokukhusela.

Obergefell v. Hodges (2015: Umtshato Ukulingana kwesizwe ngokubanzi

Iminyaka emibini emva Umqambi, iNkundla igqibile umsebenzi wokukhusela ukulingana komtshato kumacandelo amane. [UMTHETHO U-[[FLT]]] [[FLT]3]-Obergfell v. Hodges[. . Ityala lifakelwe imingeni efanayo kukhuphiso-yo yomtshato kumazwe amane. UJajini Anthony Kennedy, ubhala izininzi, ubambelele ekubeni ilungelo lokutshata liyilungelo elingundoqo phantsi kweMsebenzi yeNkqubo elindelekileyo ne-Exlimite Claussmees kwaye ukuba izibini ezifanayo azina azina zingahlulwanga kukuko oko. Isigqibo esifunekayo sokukhutshwa kwemali emtshatweni sikwane ngokusemthethweni omnye, neminye inteneedimanisa namanye amaqabane.

[[FLT: 0]] I-ISPAC: Le mithetho isemthethweni esemthethweni esemthethweni kumtshato ongokwabelana ngobudlelane kwilizwe lonke, iqinisekisa isidima kunye nokulingana kwe LGBTQ+ abantu ngabanye neentsapho zabo. Imela incopho yokwandiswa kwentsalela yamashumi eminyaka yokhuseleko kunye nobuchule bomthetho nge LGBTQ+ amalungelo kwaye imisele ukuba imigaqo yembonakalo yesondo iphantsi kokuhlolwa okukhuliselwa phantsi koKhuselo olupheleleyo luka Claus.

Ukumila Okujikelezayo Komgangatho

Ukulingana Kwendoda Nenkundla

INkundla Ephakamileyo ithetha ngocalucalulo lwezini ngokwesini phantsi kokhuseleko olulinganayo lukaClaus ukususela kwii1970. IRed v. [1], iNkundla yabetha umthetho weIdaho wakhetha amadoda phezu kwamabhinqa njengabalawuli bezindlu, ephawula ixesha lokuqala iNkundla isebenzisa iSikhundla esilinganayo sikaClaus ukuphelisa umthetho wesiXhosa sesini. [[FLT:]] Fitron.[FLT] v. Richardson[FLT:][3] [12]] [7]), ubuninzi beNkundla, obuthiwathiwa kweNkuhlanto ithelekelelo, bumele bukrotyelwe ukuba bungamele buqwalaselwe ngokungqongqo, kodwa iNkungaze yamkele ngokusesikweni. Endaweni yezo zobudolo-Bor.[5]

Kutshanje, iNkundla ibhekisa kwintelekelelo yabantu abasuka kwi-transgender kumthetho we- Bostock v. Clayton County [2020], ibambe ukuba ucalulo ngokwezizizimbo zesini okanye umgangatho wokuguqula i-transgender lulucalucalulo ngenxa yesondo ngenxa yeSihloko se-VII somthetho we-19649. Ngelixa [FLT] [FLT]] ibisisigqibo sotoliko-mthetho wemithetho yezocawakhotho kunokuba ibe ngumthetho wemgalelo, iziphumo zokuconga imigaqo elinganayo yokuzikhusela ziyaqhubeka zibonakala kwiinkundla ezisezantsi.

Ukungalingani Kwezoqoqosho Nenkundla

I-Unicimo Lokhuseleko Lobuhlwempu lusebenza kumaqela asekelwe kubutyebi kuphela kwimo elinganiselweyo. Inkundla ibambelele ekubeni azikwazi ukukukhanyela ukufikelela kwiinkundla ezisekelwe ekungavunyelwani kwezolwaphulo-mthetho, njengaku Griffin v. Illinois[ [1966]], okanye abanako ukukhanyela iingenelo zentlalo-ntle ngaphandle kokuzikhusela ngokwaneleyo. Noko ke, iNkubeko isoloko ingavumi imbono yokuba ukulingana kwezoqoqosho kuphela kwaphula umGaqo-siseko. [[FLTLT:2]] [umthetho-Ganton Antonio Indevity Viest School s. "Flt:3] [17]), kunye nesigqibo seNkubonelo lwezoNkundla esisekelwe kwipropozi yemali esekelwe kwimiqathango yasekuhlaleni, ukuchasa iganisa inkcelo yemfundo phantsi komgano yemfundo esisiseko sobugqesho ephantsi. [Flkststmentaltiestiestive

Umzabalazo Oqhubekayo Wokulingana

Ngaphandle kwezigqibo zokuguqula ezidluleyo zamashumi asixhenxe eminyaka, umzabalazo wokulingana uyaqhubeka kumacala amaninzi. Ukuphakamisa amalungelo kuye kwaphantsi koxinzelelo olutsha kuvuko lwe [[FLT: 0] Shelby County v. Hoker [202013], eyathi yakhupha indlela yokuchaza umgaqo wamalungelo oLuntu woMthetho wamaLungelo ka1965. Amazwe amisele imithetho yokuvota, i-gerrymanderderrings transting trans ezichaphazele ngokugqithisileyo uluntu abambalwa. Uninzi lweNkundla yeNkundla luye lwabonisa ukungaqiniseki kwicala loluntu oluzizoluvo oluzileyo kunye nezenzo zobunyani.

Ukuhlaziywa kobulungisa kuseyingxaki enyanzelisayo. Ukubanjwa kwabantu ngemf ’ eninzi kuye kwaba nemiphumo etshabalalisayo kuluntu lwaseAfrika naseSpeyin, yaye iNkundla iye yathetha ngemibandela esusela kwikhethe lobuhlanga ekukhetheni abachopheli-tyala ukuya ekusetyenzisweni kohlanga ekuchongeni amapolisa. Ukudibana kohlanga, ubuhlwempu, kunye nenkqubo yokugweba ityala iye yaba yeyona nto iphambili kumalungelo asekuhlaleni kwaye ibangela imibuzo engaconjululwanga ngentsingiselo yokulingana phantsi komthetho.

Ukwenziwa kotshintsho kuqhubekeka kukwenza ukhuphiswano. Isigqibo seNkundla [iFLT:0] sabangela ukuphindaphindwa kwezenzo zokwamkelwa kwemithetho yezomthetho. IHarvard (2023) ngokunempumelelo yaphelisa ukhuphiswano olusekelwe kuhlanga kwimfundo ephakamileyo, ifuna amaziko afuna ukusukela umahluko phakathi kohlanga-ngathathi-nxaxheba. Esi sigqibo sibangele ukuphinda-phindeka kwakhona kwezenzo zokwamnkenelo kunye nengxoxo entsha ngendlela yokufumana ithuba lokufumana ithuba elilinganayo lokufundisa kwibutho eliphawulwa lizingisileyo ngokobuhlanga nakungalingani okuqhubekayo kwezoqoqosho.

Ukuqonda Ukulingana Kweklasi

Kubafundisi-mfundo abafundisa le mixholo, iindlela ezininzi zinganceda abafundi ukuba babandakanye ukuntsonkotha kokulingana. Okokuqala, kubalulekile ukugxininisa ukuba intsingiselo yokulingana itshintshe ngokuphawulekayo kwimbali yaseMerika kwaye ukutolikwa komgaqo-siseko kuguqula indlela yokuphendula kwimibutho yentlalo nokutshintsha amaxabiso entlalo. Okwesibini, abafundi bafanele baqonde ukuba iNkundla ePhakamileyo ayisebenzi kwindawo engenanto; izigqibo zayo zibonisa kwaye ziphembelela inkqubela yezobupolitika nenkcubeko. Owesithathu, uhlalutyo lwetyala lufanele luquke ingqalelo enonophela ngenyameko kwimeko nganye, iimpikiswano ezingokwamabalane, kunye nokuqiqa kwenkoliso yoninzi neembono eziphikisanayo.

Iimbono ezithelekisayo zingenza ingxubusho yaseklasini ibe nkulu. Ezinye idemokhrasi ezininzi ezilawulwa ngomGaqo-siseko, kuquka iKhanada, uMzantsi Afrika, kunye neJamani, ziye zamkela amalungiselelo okulingana kwimimiselo yazo yasemva kweMfazwe Yehlabathi II ehambela phambili kuneUnited States kwezinye iinkalo. Ukuhlolisisa indlela ezinye iinkundla eziye zafikelela ngayo kwimibandela yocalulo, evumayo, kwaye ukulingana komtshato kungakhanyisa iinkalo zomthetho-siseko waseMerika kunye nezigqibo ezizinzileyo ezisekelwe kwisiseko somthetho-mthetho.

Isiphelo

INkundla ePhakamileyo iye yenza indima ebalulekileyo ekuchazeni nasekukhuseleni ukulingana phantsi komGaqo-siseko. Brown v. Ibhodi yemfundo [ ukuya ku-Obergefell v. Inkundla iphumele kwi-[, izigqibo zesazinzo zinyuse umlinganiselo wokukhusela okulinganayo kwaye ziqinisekisa isidima samaqela akhutshwe kumhlaba opheleleyo. Kodwa intlukwano yokulinganisa i-jurisprificance ayizange ibe ngumtya, kwaye iingxaki ezibalulekileyo zishiyekile. Inkundla ngokwayo itshintshile ekuqululweni nakwiintanda-bulumko, kunye neengxoxo zosuku zokuvota, i-yeboki, kunye nokucalula i-calucalucalucalucalulo olusekelwe kwintsingiselo ye-yobufana-yom-yom-yomfono.

Ukuqonda la matyala kunye nomongo wawo wembali kubalulekile kubemi abanolwazi. Imigaqo yokulingana nokusesikweni okusekelwe kwidemokhrasi yaseMerika asikokuzitshabalalisa; kufuna ukuganana okuqhubekayo, ukukhuphisana, nokuphaphamela. Njengoko abafundisi-mfundo nabafundi behlola ezi zigqibo zibalulekileyo, banenxaxheba kwicandelo elide lokutolikwa komGaqo-siseko kwaye banegalelo ekuzalisekeni kwebutho labantu elilinganayo. Isiqinisekiso sokulingana sihlala sisokuba isizukulwana ngasinye simele sisebenzele ekufezekisweni kuso.