Ukwazisa: Isibhengezo njengoMshicileli Osemthethweni

Isibhengezo seSindululo senkululeko asingosibongozo nje esisigama esisimbombo sobugqwirha okanye isibhengezo sezobupolitika. Sisacilo esisemthethweni esagwetywa ngenyameko sokuthethelela ukwahlukana kwamathanga aseMerika neGreat Britain saza sabeka isiseko sentanda-bulumko kwinkqubo entsha karhulumente. Ngokuyintloko sandululwa nguThomas Jefferson kunye neSivumelwano sesiSesibini sezwekazi ngoJulayi 4, 1776, uxwebhu lusebenza njengomthetho wesiseko solawulo lolawulo lwaseMelika. Ukuqonda ezi ngcamango zalo ezisisiseko zomthetho-Melika zilungele ukwahlukana, amalungelo omthetho oqhelekileyo, ulawulo oluqhelekileyo, kunye nelungelo leNtlanganiso, kunye neMigaqo-siseko somthetho-siseko somthetho-Merika i-Merika i-ndefatho, kunye neNtrutho-Generacracy.

Esi Sindululo silungelelaniswe njengesikhalazo esisemthethweni esisemthethweni. Siqala ngamazwi emigaqo yokuqala, siqhubela kwityala elingqalileyo likaKumkani uGeorge III, kwaye siqukumbela ngesibhengezo sobume obutsha bamathanga. Esi sakhiwo sibonakalisa isithethe somthetho oqhelekileyo sokucela ityala: sichaza umthetho, siwusebenzisa kwiinyaniso, kwaye sifune unyango. Ngokuphatha yonke impikiswano njengombandela wokungasemthethweni, abaqali baguqula imvukelo yeqela labalawuli ibe sisibheno somgaqo esiphendulwe ku "Izikhundla zoluntu]. Eli nqaku lihlola iimfundiso ezingundoqo eziqulethwe yiSindululo, imvelaphi yolwazi, kunye nokuhlola impembelelo yabo ehlala ihleliyo kumthetho waseMerika kunye nolawulo.

Imigaqo Yamalungelo Emvelo

Esi Sibhengezo sichaza ukuba bonke abantu banikwe "nguMdali wabo ngamalungelo athile angenakususwa, ukuba phakathi kwaba buBomi, Inkululeko kunye nokusukela ulonwabo." Oku akuyontetho nje ecacileyo; kukukhutshelwa okungqalileyo kwesithethe somthetho wendalo esiphuhliswe zintanda-bulumko ezifana noJohn Locke, uHugo Grotius, noSamuel von Puffendf. Kule sithethe, amalungelo awanikwanga nawuphi na urhulumente okanye igunya loluntu; azalwa ngokobukho kwisithethe soluntu kwaye aphila ngaphambi kokusekwa kwalo naliphi na ibutho lezobupolitika. Ngalo ndlela isindululo sichaza ukuba la malungelo angoo"Grovitiustius"aftius".[4]

Ukhetho lukaJefferson "ukufumana ulonwabo" endaweni ye-Locke' "indawo entle" yayiyinkxalabo ephambili yeLocke's SECOND Isivumelwano sikaRhulumente[, kodwa uDemorson wafuna intsingiselo ebanzi, intsingiselo engakumbi equka umgangatho opheleleyo womntu ochumileyo nobalulekileyo. Kumagama asemthethweni, ibinzana elithi "umvuzo wolonwabo" litolikwe ziinkundla njengenkululeko yezoqoqosho, ukuzimela, kwaye ilungelo lokuqhuba imisebenzi esemthethweni. Ngoxa isindululo ngokwaso ngokwaso singanyanzelekanga ngqo njengomthetho, amalungelo aso endalo akhankanywe yiNkukhosi, njengamalungelo angundoqo abandakanya, ukutshata kwabantwana, ukunyusela abantwana ekunene, kunye nomzekelo wasekunene. [Fodson Condurence] [2]

Ngokwembono esemthethweni, ulwakhiwo lwamalungelo emvelo lunika ulungiso olupheleleyo lokulinganisela igunya likarhulumente. Ukuba amalungelo angokwemvelo nangenakuphambukwa, ngoko nawuphi na urhulumente oziqhekezayo ngokucwangcisiweyo ulahlekelwa kukuzibeka kwawo ngokwasemthethweni. Lo mgaqo waba sisixhobo esiphambili sokugxininisa komthetho wenkqubo yaseMelika kumalungelo omntu ngamnye kunye nenkqubo efanelekileyo. ISindululo seNinth, esithi ukubekwa kwamalungelo athile kumGaqo-siseko akuzukuthathwa njengokukhanyelwa okanye ukuhlulwa kwabanye abantu, yintloko-mfa yomgaqo-siseko yamalungelo omntu ngamnye kunye nenkqubo emvelo.

Isivumelwano seNtlalo noLawulo loMkhosi woMmandla

Umgaqo wesibini ongundoqo womthetho ongowokuba oorhulumente bafumana "amandla abo okusesikweni ngokuvunyelwa ngabalawulwa". Le yimfundiso yolawulo oluqhelekileyo, esekelwe kwingcamango yesivumelwano soluntu. Isivumelwano sentlalo, njengoko saqanjwa nguThomas Hobbes, uJohn Locke, kwaye kamva nguJean-Jacques Rousseau, iposits ukuba abantu bavume ukwakha uluntu lwezopolitiko nokunika inkululeko yabo yemvelo ukuze bakhusele amalungelo abo aseleyo. Ngalo ndlela urhulumente ungumphathiswa wamandla abantu, hayi umphathi wabo.

Isindululo siyisebenzisa ngokucacileyo le ngcamango kwimeko yamathanga: "Nanini na na nayiphi na indlela kaRhulumente ibonakalisa ezi njongo, lilungelo labantu lokuguqula okanye ukuyiphelisa, nokumisela uRhulumente omtsha. Oku kuqinisekiswa kwamalungelo okuguquka akusiso isimemo sokuzinzisa isiphithiphithi kodwa isicombululo esisikelweyo esisemthethweni. Kufuna ukuba ukuxhatshazwa kukarhulumente kube "ngulo olude lokuxhaphaza nokubhadula" olubonisa indlela yokunciphisa abantu ukuba babe "i-absolute Depotistism". Abalawuli bamashishini baphikisa ukuba baludinisa zonke iindlela zoxolo zokulungisa, ukubhenela, ukubhenela, kunye nezibongozo kukumkani." ngaphambi kokuba bafune ukwahlukana.

Kumthetho womgaqo-siseko wale mihla, umgaqo wesivumelwano soluntu ubonakala kwimfuneko yokuba lonke igunya likarhulumente limiselwe kumgaqo-siseko obhaliweyo obonisa ukuthanda kwabantu. UMgaqo-siseko uqala nge "Thina bantu," hayi "Thina Rhulumente," kunye nenkqubo yokwaluswa kweentlanganiso eziqhelekileyo ezibandakanyekileyo kunokuba ziqukwe ziindlu zowiso-mthetho kuphela. INkundla ePhakamileyo ibambelele ngokuphindaphindiweyo ukuba ukufaneleka komthetho kuxhomekeke ekumanyaneni kwayo noMgaqo-siseko, oku ngokwawo okungumqondiso wokuthanda kwabantu. [i-19] Ityala enjenge [[FLT:]] umgqaliselo we-mgqwele yomthetho ophambili. [[FLT] v. [iiiiiigunya-mthetho-mthetho] [igunya-okanye ne-othenti, i-Genethi yegunya-Genethi yegunya legunya, i-Genethi yegunya eligunya eligunya eligunya eligunya eligunyazelelweyo.[FFL:]

Ukungavunyelwayo nokungavunyelwanga

Enye yeengxoxo ezihlala zihleli ezingokwasemthethweni ezinxulumene nesivumelwano sentlalo kusini na ukuba imvume isenokuboniswa kunokuba ichazwe ngokucacileyo. Abatyikityi besibhengezo bavuma ngokuphandle ukuba bazimele, kodwa izizukulwana ezizayo zibotshelelwe ngemithetho abayizuze njengefa. Umthetho waseMelika ugqiba oku ngengqiqo "yokuvuma": ngokuhlala phakathi kwentsimi nokunandipha iingenelo zikarhulumente, abantu banokucingelwa ukuba bayavuma kwigunya labo. Oku kubandakanya imfuneko yokuba bonke abantu bathobele u-U.S. igunya, kuquka abaphambukeli, ukuthobela imithetho yesizwe neyarhulumente. Noko ke, ukugxininisa kwesindululo somthetho kusetyenziswe ngabameli bangamagunya angakumbi okubhenca ulawulo lomthetho wolawulo-melo, bephikisa ukuba ukusebenza, besamkela ngokuqhubekayo, begunyazisa imvume elawulayo.

Ulungelelwaniso Olusemthethweni Lwenkululeko: Uluhlu Lwezigwebo

Icandelo elide kakhulu lesi Sibhengezo lingumthetho wezikhalazo ezithile nxamnye noKumkani uGeorge III. Olu luhlu asiloludwe nje olungokwembali lwezikhalazo; bubungqina obusemthethweni bokuba amalungelo abathathi-nxaxheba aphulwe kangangokuba imvukelo yayikuphela kwendlela esemthethweni yokulungisa. Izityholo zilungelelaniswe ukubonisa ukuba uKumkani uligqithile igunya lakhe elingokwasemthethweni njengomlawuli wezomGaqo-siseko kwaye waceba nePalamente ukurhoxisa amalungelo abo angokwesithethe njengamaNgesi.

Izikhalazo eziphambili ziquka ukungavumi kokumkani ukuvuma imithetho eyimfuneko, ukuphelisa kwakhe iindibano eziyimfuneko, ukuvalela kwakhe ulawulo lwezobulungisa ngokwenza abagwebi baxhomekeke kukuthanda kwakhe kuphela, ukubekwa kwakhe ikota yemikhosi emakhayeni abantu ngaphandle kwemvume, kunye nokubekwa kwerhafu ngaphandle kokumiswa kwemiqathango. Izikhalazo ngasinye zinxulumene nokuvunywa kwetyala kwamalungelo etyala lasekuhlaleni, iMagna Carta, okanye umgaqo-siseko weBritane ongabhalwanga. Umzekelo, isikhalo nge "sirhwebekishi singaphaya kolwandle ukuba sivavanywe ngokufana nomthetho owetyala" sibhekisela ekulahlweni kwetyala lasekuhlaleni, ilungelo elingundoqo phantsi komthetho oqhelekileyo. Isikhalazo esinge "isininzi semikhosi exhobileyo" phakathi kwe-Slvelservey"

Ngokwembono esemthethweni, ukusetyenziswa kweZindululo kufeza imisebenzi emibini. Okokuqala, kubonisa ukuba abalawuli bazama ukubuyisela izindululo ngemijelo esemthethweni, izibheno zemithetho-mthetho , kwaye le nto iyimfuneko ekusebenziseni ilungelo elisemthethweni lenguquko. Okwesibini, imisela isimilo sokuziphatha koKumkani oyaphula isivumelwano sentlalo. Njengoko uJohn Locke, xa umlawuli ezama ukuthatha impahla okanye ubomi bemiba engafuni kuvunyelwa, umlawuli ungene kwimo yemfazwe nabantu, nabantu banelungelo lokuzikhusela.

Imfundo engokwasemthethweni enxulumene nezi zityholo iyaqhubeka ifanelekile. Ukusetyenziswa kakubi kwemikhosi emileyo ngaphandle kwemvume yomthetho, ukungenelela kwenkululeko yokugweba, ukukhanyelwa kwetyala ngabachopheli-mthetho, kunye nokupheliswa kwe-habeas corpus , ziluhlobo lwezenzo eziye zayilwa nguMgaqo-siseko neBhili yamaLungelo enziwe ukuze kuthintelwe. Umzekelo, ukuvalelwa kweSihlaziyo sesithathu ekudibaniseni amajoni ezindlwini zabucala kusabela ngqo kuso eso sikhalazo. Ulungiso lweSindululo sesihlanu kunye neemfuno ezinkulu zenkundla yejaji ezingeno ezingafanelekanga nezingagwebi.

Impembelelo Kumthetho Nakulawulo LwaseMerika

Umthetho ogunyazisayo weSindululo wawusemthethweni wokumiselwa koorhulumente abatsha nokumkelwa koorhulumente borhulumente abatsha ekugqibeleni komgaqo-siseko wolawulo kunye nomGaqo-siseko wase-U. ngokuvakalisa amathanga "Inkululeko ne-Idependent States," uxwebhu lwachitha konke ukumanyana okusemthethweni okungaphambili neBritane, kuquka igunya lePalamente kunye nesithsaba. Isalathisi ngasinye esasisakuba lilonke ngoko kwakufuneka siphinde silwe urhulumente waso ngokusekelwe kumgaqo wolongamo lwaziwayo. Kwiinyangangeenyanga ezininzi, sathi samkela imimiselo emitsha ebhaliweyo equka iingulwimi oluthetha ngamalungelo emvelo. Ngokomzekelo, isindululo samaLungu-Virginia sokuQulunga aMandla (1777) savakalisa ukuba "onke abantu bamele ukuba bakhululwenze ngokwemvelo kwaye bazimele ngokwamalungelo athile azimeleyo" ngoko banokuwahlulwa.

Impembelelo yesindululo kuMgaqo-siseko wase-U.S. ithe ngqo kodwa isenzulu. UmGaqo-siseko awuluphindi ulwimi lwamalungelo okwemvelo, kodwa wenza isiseko samalungelo alinganiselweyo, adweliswe akha ukumiselwa kwamalungelo emvelo akhoyo ngaphambili. Iinjongo zomGaqo-siseko zokwahlula okugqibeleleyo, ukumisela uLuntu, ukuqinisekisa ubuchule basekhaya, ukulungiselela ukhuseleko oluqhelekileyo, ukukhuthaza iWelfare, nokukhusela iintsikelelo zeLizwane"(16) ziphefumlelwe ngokucacileyo ziinjongo zomGaqo-siseko. Ukwahlulo lwamandla novavanyo kunye nolungelelwano lwezimiselo luyilelwe ukukhusela uhlobo oluphezulu, amandla okuxhaphaza oko kugwetyelwa sisibhengezo.

Owona mGaqo-siseko uchaza ngokuthe ngqo uSindululo yiSindululo samaLungelo, esamkelwa ngo-1791. Ukhuseleko loMphetho Wokuqala wokuthetha, wokushicilela, lonqulo, lombutho, kunye nokubongoza konke ukukhusela amalungelo awayesetyenziswa ngabalawuli bomthetho weBritane ukuqhayisa ulawulo. UMthetho wesibini woHluliso lweMpanzi wokuzibamba uphendula isikhalazo ngemigudu kaKumkani yokuphelisa amaphulo oluntu. Ukhuseleko lweSihlalo sesine soMphengululo ngokuphengulula nokukhuthuza okungaqiqinisekiyo okungathethekiyo okunxulumene nomthetho-omatilo-. Ukhuseleko lweSiphengululo sesihlanu lungathethi nto ngetyala ngaphandle kwenkqubo efanelekileyo. Isindululo esicacileyo "onke" amalungelo abantu agcinwe ngokucacileyo, akhutshelwe ngokucacileyo kumalungelo abantu, akhunjulwayo kwi-ntanda-ntanda-bulumko bendalo.

Ukucaciswa kwezaphuli-mthetho nokunconywa okuqhubekayo komthetho

Nangona isindululo singesosiSindululo esisemthethweni ngengqiqo yokuba sidala umthetho onyanzelisayo, iinkundla ziye zasikhankanya ngaphezu kweenkulungwane ezimbini ukucacisa intsingiselo yomGaqo-siseko nokuxhasa ukuvunywa kwamalungelo asisiseko. United States v. [[FLT:] [1884], iNkundla ibhekisa ekunene kwabantu kuxolo lokuhlanganisana kunye nokucelwna amalungelo afana nolo rhulumente we-United States. [[FLT:]]

Esi Sindululo sikwanendima ebalulekileyo kumthetho wezizwe ngezizwe nakwintetho yamalungelo abantu. Imigaqo yaso yancedwa ngabaququzeli beSindululo Sehlabathi Lonke Samalungelo Abantu (1948) kwaye siyaqhubeka siphembelela izivumelwano kunye nezivumelwano kumalungelo abantu nakumalungelo ezobupolitika. Amazwe amaninzi aphuma kulawulo lwamathanga aye amisela izindululo zawo zokuzimela ngokwawo umgaqo - siseko wase-U.S., amkela ingqiqo esemthethweni yokuba abantu banelungelo lokubhukuqa ulawulo olucinezelayo.

Imicimbi Yasemthethweni

Nangona isiseko salo sikwimeko, esi Sindululo asinazo iimpazamo ezisemthethweni kunye neempikiswano zembali. Okuchasana okucacileyo yintetho yaso yokuba "zonke izibhengezo zadalwa ziyalingana" ngelixa umbhali wazo oyintloko, uThomas Jefferson, engabantu abakhotyokisiweyo, kwaye uxwebhu ngokwalo alukhokelelenga ekuphelisweni kobukhoboka. Olu xinezeleko luye lwaba ngumbandela wohlalutyo olunzulu olusemthethweni nolwembali. Abanye baphikisa ngelithi imigaqo yeSindululo yayingomntu wonke oqhelekileyo kwaye isobukhoboka bewuchasa ngokwalo lwalo lwalo mthetho. Abanye bathi abaBaseki babengabandakanyelani ngabomdla kwisigaba se "men" ngenxa yamalungelo okungamalungelo emvelo, imbono yokuba ukutolikwa kwasekuqaleni komGaqonga komGaqo-siseko kwaqhubeka de kwazimgamgamgamgamgamstiki.

Imfundiso esemthethweni "yamalungelo angenakususwa" ikwaphakamisa imibuzo esebenzisekayo. Ukuba amalungelo angenakuphambukiswa, anokuze athintelwe ngumthetho? INkundla Ephakamileyo iye yathi kwanamalungelo asisiseko aphantsi kolawulo olusengqiqweni, ukuba urhulumente unenzala enyanzelisayo kwaye usebenzisa iindlela ezingqongqo. Oku kuthetha ukuba isindululo solwimi olunesandi esipheleleyo kufuneka sixolelwane neenyaniso zebutho elintsonkothileyo. Umzekelo, ilungelo lenkululeko alithethi ukuba nayiphi na into ayifunayo umntu umele ayenze; sithetha inkululeko ekuzibambeni ngokungqongqo. Isindululo ngokwaso siyaqonda ukuba oorhulumente bamiselwe "ukusebenza" lamalungelo, simisela ukuba urhulumente owenziwe kakuhle anokuzibophelele ekukhuseleni amalungelo abo bonke.

Omnye umbuzo ongokwasemthethweni ngowokuba ngaba isindululo simisela nawuphi na umsebenzi ofanelekileyo kurhulumente wokulungiselela "ukufumana ulonwabo". Abanye abaxhasi bomthetho abahambela phambili baye baphikisa ngelithi eli binzana lithetha imbopheleleko karhulumente yokuqinisekisa iimeko apho abantu benokuthi ngokwenene bafune ulonwabo, kuquka imfundo, ukunyamekela impilo, kunye namathuba ezoqoqosho. Noko ke, ukucaciswa komthetho-siseko akulwamkelanga olu nkcazelo, ukugqala esi Sindululo njengomlinganiselo ophezulu kurhulumente kunokuba kusibeke kwimithombo yokuzivumela ukuba ungenelwe.

Imfundo esemthethweni eqhubekayo yesibhengezo

Namhlanje, isibhengezo senkululeko siseyinxalenye ebalulekileyo yemfundo esemthethweni. Abafundi bonke bezomthetho eUnited States badibana nayo kwiizifundo zomthetho, kungekhona njengomthombo wesigqeba esingumzekelo kodwa njengesiseko somthetho okhoyo njengesiseko solwazi esikhoyo kuso sonke isixokelelwano somthetho saseMerika. Ukuqonda isiseko somthetho weSindululo kunceda amagqwetha nabagwebi baqonde intanda-bulumko esisiseko somGaqo-siseko: ukuba urhulumente lulwakhiwo oluyila abantu ukuba bakhonze izilangazelelo zabo, kwaye xa lusilela ukwenza oko, abantu bagcina amandla apheleleyo okusiguqula.

Abameli bafunda kwakhona isibhengezo sokwenza isigqibo somdla nesakhiwo saso esinengqiqo. Olu xwebhu lusuka kwimigaqo ngokubanzi ukuya kwizityholo ezibunyaniso ezithi ngqo zibhekise kwisibhengezo esigqibelele samalungelo ``imodeli yoqikelelo olusemthethweni olusasetyenziswa kwiinkcukacha ezingokwasemthethweni zangoku. Ukusetyenziswa kwesibhengezo "ibhombu yeenkcazo" bubuchule obuqhelekileyo kwiligita. Isibheno saso kuluntu" sibonakalisa icebo eliqhelekileyo lokuthetha ngomgaqo omnye wesithethe kunye nemigaqo eyamkelekileyo.

Ukongezelela, isindululo sisebenza njengomthombo wentsebenziswano kwimibutho efuna ukwandisa amalungelo entlalo. Ulwimi lwamalungelo emvelo luye lwabhenela kubapheli-mthetho, abaxhasi bamaxwebhu, abaxhasi bamalungelo abantu, kunye nabameli beLGBTQ. Isigqibo seNkundla Ephakamileyo Brown v. Ibhodi yemfundo [1954] ayizange ichaze isindululo ngqo, kodwa ukubamba kwayo i-liviko lohlanga lungavisisani noMkhuseli oPhakathiweyo kaClausle ivumelana nesiqinisekiso sokuba bonke abantu badalwa ngokufanayo. Eneneni, uGqr. uMartin Luther Jr. wawandisa amalungelo akhe aziwayo kwizithembiso zeZibonelelo, isithi "promi" iphawu lawo onke athetha ukuba amaMelika athe onke.

Isiphelo: Uxwebhu Olusemthethweni

Isibhengezo seSindululo seNkqutyana yenkululeko sisoloko sichazwa njengoxwebhu lwezopolitiko, kodwa luluxwebhu lokuqala nolokugqibela olusemthethweni. Sichaza ingcamango karhulumente esekelwe kumalungelo emvelo, kulawulo oludumileyo, nelungelo lokuvukela. Sinikela ingxengxezo eneenkcukacha yesithsibo saseBritane esisebenza njengobungqina obusemthethweni bokwaphuka kwesivumelwano soluntu. Yaye simisela umbono worhulumente osemthethweni oqhubeka ukhokela umthetho wezomgaqo-siseko waseMerika. Ngoxa iSindululo singanyanzelwanga njengomthetho oqhelekileyo, imigaqo yaso idityaniswe kwingulo lomGaqo-siseko, iBhili yamaLungelo, nezigqizo ezingenakulinganiswa. Ingqiqo yaso-mthetho isengumbandela ofanelekileyo njengoko amaMerika ephikisana ngeenjongo zenkululeko, ukulingana, nokulingana kolawulo olufanelekileyo. Ukuqonda okusemthethweni kwemithetho yeSindululelo-Riphabliki nemithetho-Melika.

Ukuphinda ufunde, Ugcino-lwazi lobuzwe lunika ikhowudi epheleleyo kunye nomongo wembali. ISibonelelo seKhompathimente[ inika iidrafti kunye namaxwebhu asuka kwinkqubo yedrafti. Ukuntywilisela nzulu kwintanda-bulumko esemthethweni, bona [[FLT:]] [[FLT]] [FLT] iziko loMgaqo-siseko womgaqo-siseko wocalulo lwezikhalazo kunye [FLT:] kunye no-General Reformation Information Institutes Institutesmentations [FLT]]