Kumatshini ontsonkothileyo karhulumente waseMerika, ijaji yesizwe iphethe isikhundla esinamandla angaqhelekanga kodwa esinyanzelwe ngabom. Ngoxa iNgqungquthela ibhala imithetho kwaye uMongameli eyinyanzelisayo, iwela kwiinkundla zesizwe ukuchaza oko ithethayo loo mithetho kwaye nokuba ithobela umthetho ophakamileyo welizwe: umGaqo-siseko. Eli gunya logwebo lokugweba, elimiselwe kwimo yetyala [[FLT:] [0] [marbury v. Madison, lenza iinkundla zelizwe zihlole okubalulekileyo kwamanye amasebe. Ukuqonda amandla achanileyo kunye nemiqathango yeenkundla kubalulekile ukuyiqonda indlela ezilawula ngayo iUnited States ngokwazo. Azipheli nje isigqibo esisebenzayo kwiprojelo solawulo lwabugqebango-mthetho-mthetho-mthetho-mthetho-Melikan.

Isiseko somGaqo-siseko seSizwe

Inqaku III lomGaqo-siseko wase-U.S. limisa isebe lobulungisa lorhulumente worhulumente worhulumente worhulumente. Ekundulukeni kwangabom kwinkqubo yamaBritane, abalawuli badala ijaji elizimeleyo lowiso-mthetho nendlu yowiso-mthetho. Abagwebi bamaPhondo banikwa ubomi obumiselweyo "bebonakalisa isimilo esihle" kwaye imivuzo yabo yezomGaqo-siseko ayinakuncitshiswa ngexa behlala bekwisikhundla. Le miqathango yesakhiwo yayiyilelwe ukukhusela abagwebi kwiimpindezelo zezobupolitika nokuqinisekisa ukuba bangenza izigqibo ezingakhethi macala ekuphela komthetho nezibakala, ngaphandle kokoyika ukubuyiselwa kooMongameli.

Ku ULuhlu loManyano No. 78, uAlexander Hamilton wachaza ngokudumileyo isebe lejaji njenge "lempuma eyingozi" ngenxa yokuba line "amandla nangasayi kugweba, kodwa linomgwebo nje." uHamilton waphikisa ukuba ijaji iza kuba namandla amancinci okuphazamisa amalungelo ezobupolitika omGaqo-siseko. Kodwa, wakwathi kwakhona, yayiyilo kanye olu nkululeko oluvumela ukuba kusetyenziswa kwegunya elinamandla lokuhlola isigwebo ````igunya lomthetho'''' nezenzo zolawulo olungenagunya loburhulumente. Ngaphandle kwala mandla. Umthetho umthetho uzakubekwa nje ngokweengcebiso, phantsi kwemiqatha yezopoliti yezopolitiko. Umkhosi we-Frest Paper ushiye uyaqhubeka elungele ukufundwa kwenjongo yolwazi olusemva kolulawulo olusemthethweni olugunyazinziswe emva kweQumncito.

Isakhiwo sobulungisa: Inkqubo eneziphene ezintathu

Inkqubo yenkundla yephondo yesizwe yenzelwe ukuba ibe yinkundla ecacileyo, eyenzelwe ukuqinisekisa uhlalutyo olucokisekileyo nokungaguquguquki ekutolikeni komthetho wesizwe. Isebenza ngeenkundla zokuvavanya ulawulo jikelele ezantsi, iinkundla eziphakathi, kunye neNkundla ePhakamileyo encotsheni. Esi sakhiwo siqinisekisa ukuba amatyala agqitywe ngendlela elungeleleneyo kwaye iimpazamo zingalungiswa.

IiNkundla ZeSithili zaseUnited States: Umgangatho Wetyala

Kukho izithili ezimalunga ne-94 zephondo lephondo lorhulumente kulo lonke elaseUnited States kunye nemimandla yalo, nganye iqulathe iNkundla yeSithili yase-U. La ngamahashe asebenzayo ejaji yephondo leUnited States, apho kuqulwa khona amatyala, amatyala ejaji ahleli phantsi, nezibakala zimisiwe. Iinkundla zesithili zisingatha ulwaphulo-mthetho lwaseburhulumenteni, ukumangalelwa kwamapolisa phantsi komthetho karhulumente, kunye neemeko ezahlukahlukeneyo apho amaqela asuka kumaphondo ahlukeneyo.

IiNkundla Zezibheno zaseUnited States: IiNkundla Zesiphaluka

Iinkundla zephondo ezili-13 (iicandelo lephondo, iD.C. kunye neNtlanganiso yesiphaluka) zisebenza njengendlela yokuqala yokuhlola kwizigqibo zenkundla yesithili. Azilivavanyi okanye zive ubungqina obutsha. Endaweni yoko, iicandelo zabagwebi abathathu zihlola ingxelo yokuvavanya ebhaliweyo ukuze zibone ukuba iimpazamo ezisemthethweni zenzekile kusini na ezigunyazisa ukuguqulwa okanye ukuvavanywa okutsha. Iinkundla zesiphaluka zidla ngokubizwa ngokuba "igama elingunxaxhina" kuninzi lwamatyala karhulumente, njengoko iNkundla Ephakamileyo isoloko ithetha kuphela ngeqhezulwano. D.C. Isekela inempembelelo enkulu kuba isingatha umqulu ophezulu wamatyala abandakanya ulawulo kunye nomthetho wolawulo. Xa iziphaluka-mthetho wolawulo, zidala u-"Ccurit" olusoloko lubangela ukudityaniswa kweNkuhlulo oluphakamileyo kwiNkuqulu.

INkundla Ephakamileyo yaseUnited States

Njengenkundla yezonyulo zokugqibela, iNkundla ePhakamileyo iphulaphula izibheno ezivela kwiinkundla zesiphaluka ize ivakalise iinkundla eziphakamileyo (ezikwimibuzo karhulumente). Ilawula eyayo idokisi, inika imvume yokusetyenziswa kwe-certiorari malunga ne-100-150 yamatyala angama-7000 + ecelwa ukuba ihlole unyaka ngamnye. Isigqibo sayo simisela umzekelo ongqongqo kulo lonke uhlanga, isombulula izahlulo ezinzulu ekutolikeni kweenkundla ezisezantsi. Inkundla ePhakamileyo ingumqwalaseli oyintloko wentsingiselo yeMigaqo-siseko.

Iinkundla Zomanyano Ezikhethekileyo

Ngaphandle kweenkundla zeQumrhu III, iKhomishini iye yavelisa inkundla ekhethekileyo yokusingatha iinkalo ezithile zomthetho. Ezi ziquka iNkundla yerhafu yase-U.S. iNkundla yezibheno zeVendans, kunye neNkundla yeZibheno ze-U. Le nkundla ikhethekileyo ivumela ubuchule obunzulu kodwa ikwaphakamisa imibuzo ekhethekileyo ngokuphathelele ukubonakala kwamandla exhobileyo nokuphendula. Izakubamba iingxelo eziya kubangela ukuba ityala letyala liyilwe kakhulu inkundla jikelele.

Imida Etyholwayo: Oko Inkundla YamaPhondo Inako Nokungenakukuva

Igunya leenkundla zikarhulumente alingomqathango. Ulawulo lwazo luchazwa luze lubotshwe ngocoselelo ngumGaqo-siseko nemimiselo karhulumente. Inkundla yesizwe ayinakusuka nje ive naliphi na ityala elithandwayo; kufuneka ibe nemvume ekhethekileyo yegunya. Le mida isisiseko kumgaqo karhulumente olinganiselweyo.

Umbuzo womanyano kunye noluvo lodidi

Iinkundla zomanyano zinegunya lokuqala kumatyala "ekumeleni komGaqo-siseko, kwiMithetho yaseUnited States, nakwiMithetho eyenziwayo". Oku kwaziwa njengolawulo lwetyala lorhulumente. Kwakhona ziva amatyala phakathi kwabemi bamazwe awahlukeneyo apho imali exabanayo ingaphezulu lee-$75,000, eyaziwa ngokuba lulawulo lwahlukeneyo. Oku kuqinisekisa ukuba kukho ubundilele kwi-fomati ngaphandle kwamaqela asekuhlaleni, nto leyo ethintela ubuhlanga obunokwenzeka kwinkundla yelizwe apho iqela elinye lithanda khona ikhaya.

Iimfundiso Ezisesikweni

Umlinganiselo obalulekileyo wegunya lokugweba lesizwe yimfuneko yokuba amatyala kufuneka abe "asesikweni" eli gama leambrela liquka iimfundiso eziliqela ezahlukileyo ezithintela iinkundla ekukhupheni iimbono zomthetho okanye ukuphazamisana kwimicimbi eshiyelwe kumasebe ezobupolitika ngcono.

  • Ukuma: I-paltiff kufuneka ibe ifumene ikonkrithi, inxeba elithile elisemngciphekweni okanye elisondeleyo, hayi icebo okanye intelekelelo. Umonakalo kufuneka ulandelelwe kwihambo yommangalelwa kwaye mhlawumbi ubuyiselwe ngesigqibo senkundla esilungileyo.
  • [[UMTL: 0] Ubungozi: Ingozi kufuneka yenzeke okanye ibe kufuphi ngokukhawuleza; inkundla ayinakulawula kwingozi yexesha elizayo eqikelelwayo engenakuze idlule.
  • [[FLT: 0] Impikiswano kufuneka ibe "iphila" kuyo yonke inkqubo yokucazulula. Ukuba imbambano isombululwe okanye iimeko ziyatshintsha ukuze inkundla ingabe isakwazi ukunikezela ngenkxaso esebenzayo, ityala liyarhoxa kwaye liyarhoxiswa.
  • Isiqinisekiso kwiZimvo zoMgaqo-siseko: iinkundla zoManyano zingagqiba kuphela iityala kunye neempikiswano. Azikwazi ukukhupha uluvo loonobumba okanye imiyalelo kwimibuzo ethelekelelwayo engomthetho. Oku kunyanzela ukuba ijaji isebenze phakathi kommandla weempikiswano ezisebenzayo, zekonkrithi.

Imfundiso Yezobupolitika

Kwesinye isenzo sozithintela ngokwabo, iinkundla zephondo ziphuhlise imfundiso yezopolitiko. Le mfundiso imi ngelithi eminye imibandela ibopheleleke ngokwemigaqo-siseko kumasebe ezobupolitika (Konsor okanye uMongameli) kwaye ngoko ke ayilunganga. Imizekelo iquka imingeni kwihambo yemimiselo yamanye amazwe, ukudityaniswa komgaqo-siseko, ukupheliswa kwemiqathango, kwaye, phantsi kweengcamango ezithile, inguquko-mthetho ye-gracter jining. Ityala elibalulekileyo le Baker v. Carr [1962]) yasungula uvavanyo lwangoku lokuchaza umbuzo wezopolitiko, igxininisa enoba kukho ukuzinikela komgaqo-siseko wemiqathango wezomthetho-onkculo yezomthetho-odoli.

Amandla Okuqhelisela Impinda Yezeejaji

Amandla okuhlola okugweba ligumbi legunya lejaji yesizwe. Ivumela iinkundla ukuba ziphelise izenzo zeBhunga, zikaMongameli, kunye noorhulumente abachasene nomGaqo-siseko. Eli gunya lisetyenziswa kwimeko nganye efuna inkundla itolike umGaqo-siseko okanye umthetho karhulumente.

Ukubukeza Imithetho Karhulumente

Ukusuka [[FLT: 0] [[FLT: 1] ukuya kweli xesha, iNkundla Ephakamileyo iye yabetha amakhulukhulu eemeko, urhulumente, kunye nemithetho yasekuhlaleni. Eli gunya liqinisekisa ukuba amaziko owiso-mthetho awawanyatheli amalungelo omgaqo-siseko. [ Brown v. Ibhodi yemfundo[[FLT:] [1954] [1954]], iNkumbuso-othulwa phantsi kwe-omatika karhulumente ezikolweni, iphazamisa "iindawo elinganayo kodwa" imfundiso ye [[FLT:]] engenakulinganiswayo.[FLT] V[FLT].. [FFFLT]] [FF]] [5]

Izenzo zolawulo oluphezulu ezihlolisisiweyo

Iinkundla zisebenza njengovavanyo olubalulekileyo kwisebe eliphetheyo. Kubantu abancinane Ikhasi le Tube Co. v. Sayer (1952), iNkundla ebekelwe umda uMongameli Truman isebenza njengendlela yokufumana izigamlo zentsimbi ngexesha lemfazwe yase Korea, iqinisekisa ukuba amandla kaMongameli akaphelelanga kwaye kufuneka aphume kumthetho wesizwe okanye umGaqo-siseko ngokwawo. Kutshanje, iinkundla ziphinde zawakhe umva imiyalelo yezolawulo lwezoburhulumente ekufudukeni, kulawulo lwemekobume, kunye nokhuseleko lwesizwe, ngokufuthi zithintela izenzo ezigqitha igunya lomthetho. Inkundla ephezulu yezomthetho e [[FLT] i-United States v. Nix[FFFFF][3]

Ukukhusela Ukukhululeka Komntu Ngamnye

Iinkundla zikarhulumente zisoloko zingowright v. Inkundla yephondo zihlala zilucelomngeni kurhulumente. IBhili yamaLungelo kunye noHlaziyo lweshumi elinesine lunikwa intsingiselo yazo esebenzisekayo ngokutolikwa kwezasemthethweni. Iimeko zelizwe ezibonisa i-Platem njenge- Gideon v. Wainright [kulungile] [ukucebisa], ] imanda v. Arizona [[FLT] [FLT]] [[FLT]]] [iiindawo ekhuselekileyo nxamnye noziquququ), kunye [ne] ne-igwegwe . [iii-FLT] [FLT] . [i-ex] [ixf] [ixf] [ixmage] (iphantilm]) ibonakalisa amandla okuphinda-enza imigaqo ye-gropulgrati ye-grati ye-Genelg.

Imigaqo Esisiseko Elawula Amandla Eejaji

Phezu kwalo nje igunya lazo elikhulu, iinkundla zelifa lemveli zisebenza phantsi kwemiqathango ebalulekileyo ewathintelayo ekubeni abe yinkundla yezomthetho yombuso. Ezi zithintelo zingaphakathi nangaphandle, ziqinisekisa ukuba ijaji ihlala ithembekile kwaye imele ibekwe phantsi komthetho.

Ukhanyo lwenkwenkwezi

Umgaqo we [[NTL:0] unqabile kwaye ufuna ulungiso olukhethekileyo, olufana notshintsho kwiimeko ezichanekileyo okanye ukuqonda ukuba isigqibo sangaphambili siphosakele. Oku kukhuthaza uzinzo, ukuxelwa kwangaphambili, nokuqhubekeka kumthetho. Ngokungaphezulu kokuyimisela imo yesiqhelo kuyimfuneko kwaye kuxhomekeke kubuchule obukhethekileyo, njengotshintsho kwiimeko ezichanekileyo okanye ukufumanisa ukuba isigqibo sangaphambili siphosakele." njengokuba iJaji Brandeis yakha yaphawula, "kwizinto ezininzi ezibaluleke kakhulu ukuba umthetho osebenzayo umiswe kunokuba umiswe ngokulungileyo." Le mfundiso ilinganisela amandla omgwebi ukubeka imilinganiselo yawo yobuqu.

Imida Yendlela Yokuzilungisa

Iinkundla zomanyano zingakhupha imigwebo, imimiselo, nemiyalelo, kodwa ziswele amandla azimeleyo okuzinyanzelisa. Kufuneka zixhomekeke kwisebe eliphetheyo ukuze liphumeze imimiselo yalo. Oku kungumda onzulu kwigunya lazo. Ukuba uMongameli okanye irhuluneli yephondo ikhupha umyalelo wenkundla, inkundla ijonge ncam ngqo ngaphaya kokudelela iqela eliya licela iU.S. Nkonzo yamachalars (inxalenye yesebe eliphetheyo) ukuba isebenze. Oku kuxhomekeke ku "amandla ekreleni" kuvavanywa ngokusisiseko kwicandelo lenkundla.

Uphando lweBhunga noLawulo

UMgaqo-siseko unika izixhobo ezininzi kumasebe ezobupolitika ukuvavanya ijaji. IKhomishini ingaguqula igunya lokulawula leNkundla Ephakamileyo, itshintshe inani labagwebi kwinkundla ethile, icebise izindululo zomgaqo-siseko ukubhukuqa imithetho ethile, kwaye isuse abagwebi bephondo "ophezulu kunye nabaGawulayo". UMongameli uhlola iinkundla ngamandla okungagunyazi, eqinisekisa ukuba izahlulelo zejaji zigcwaliswe ngabantu abanolwa nomthetho wakhe. Ezi ziqinisekisa ukuba abagwebi abanakususwa ngokupheleleyo ekuthandeni kwabantu, noko kudala.

Ilungu Lomntu: Ukutyunjwa Nentanda - bulumko Yezaphuli - mthetho

Ngenxa yokuba abagwebi besizwe bemiselwe ubomi, inkqubo yokuzikhetha yenye yezona zenzo zilandelayo uMongameli anokuzithatha. Iqinisekisa ukuba ijaji ibonakalisa, ngokweqondo elithile, amaxabiso ezobupolitika onyulo, nangona enexesha elininzi elifanelekileyo.

Ubeko lwephepha

Abaququzeleli baphenjelelwa yiKomiti yeNdlu yeQela leMiqulu-mali kwaye kufuneka baphumelele kwivoti enkulu kwiNdlu yeNtlanga epheleleyo. Le nkqubo iye yasetyenziswa kakhulu kumashumi eminyaka akutshanje, ngokuvavanywa okunzulu kwentanda-bulumko yokugweba, imibhalo edlulileyo, nomsebenzi osemthethweni. Izibonda ziphezulu kuba ukumiselwa komnye kunokuthi kuxonxe ikhondo lomthetho wesizukulwana okanye ngaphezulu. Le nkqubo inguvavanyo olubalulekileyo lwedemokhrasi kumandla ejiko-judiary.

Ukuqokelela Iingcamango Zokutolika

Abagwebi bazisa iintanda-bulumko ezahlukeneyo kwisihlalo esisimo sokulungisa amatyala. [[FLT:] Abalawuli abaphezulu bazama ukuchaza umGaqo-siseko osekelwe kwintsingiselo yawo yantlandlolo ngexesha owagunyaziswa ngalo. ababhali-zincwadi [ baqwalasela ngokufutshane umbhalo ocacileyo womthetho, besithi abagwebi abamele bazame ukuzama ukuchaza injongo yomthetho wobuthixo. Abanye bamkela umGaqo-siseko [[FLT: 4.] ozimeleyo [[FLT:] ukusondela, bephikisa ukuba imigaqo yomthetho-siseko kufuneka iqhubekeke ngotshintsho oluqhelekileyo. Oku kukhokelela kwiziphumo ezahlukileyo, ukusuka ekuphumeni kwemiputoto ukuya kulawulo lwezikhompumpu.

Ukubaluleka Okuhlala Kukho KweeNkundla Zomanyano Kuluntu Lwanamhlanje

Namhlanje, iinkundla zeli lizwe zisesazulwini sezona ngxaki ziphikisanayo zelizwe lonke kususela kumalungelo okuvota kunye nokuqhomfa ukuya kulawulo oluphezulu, ulawulo lwemekobume, nokhuseleko lwesizwe. Ukwanda kokubekwa kwenkqubo yokumiselwa komthetho kukhokelele kwijaji eqwalaselwe ngabaninzi njengedabi lezobupolitika. Nangona ezi ngcinezelo, ukunyanzeleka, ukufaneleka nokusebenza kweenkundla zesizwe kuxhomekeke ekuqhubekeni kwazo kumgaqo osemthethweni phezu kolawulo oluphezulu. Iinkundla kufuneka zixhase neengxaki zale mihla yokuba ooFramente abanakulindela. Ubuchule boluntu, ubuqhetseba, ubungabo, ukunxibelelana, kunye nemfazwe yehlabathi ekhuthaza zonke iimfuno zobugqhinga ezifuna ukusetyenziswa kwemigaqo emidala yomthetho-siseko kuxhomekeke ngokupheleleyo. Ukukwazi kwe-judiary ukumelana nomthetho womthetho osemthethweni osemthethweni okhoyo ngexesha lokuhlala kulo lonke.

Amandla eenkundla zelifa lesizwe ayoyikeka kodwa alungelelaniswe kakuhle. Angabetha imithetho, amise izenzo zolawulo, akhusele amalungelo asisiseko. Kodwa, axhomekeke ngokusisiseko kwamanye amasebe nakukukholoseko lukawonke-wonke ukunyanzelisa imimiselo yawo. Ukuqonda olu mlinganiselo / amandla awoyikekayo okuchaza oko kungumthetho, kunye nemilinganiselo yesakhiwo kunye nemithetho emiselweyo kwelo gunya. / `Iichaza isizathu sokuba iinkundla zelizwe zibala elinzulu ekugcinweni komGaqo-siseko waseMelika. Ziya, njengoko uHamilton eqonda, umgcini wemiGatho-siseko, engenzi gunya lesikhwa semali okanye ikrele, kodwa amandla ahlala ehleliyo egwebo.