Isiseko Esihlala Sihleli: Isizathu Sokuba Kubaluleke Ukuhlaziywa Komthetho

UMgaqo-siseko waseUnited States, owagunyaziswa ngo-1788, waseka isakhiwo sorhulumente wezwe. Kodwa abaququzeleli bawo baqonda ukuba alukho uxwebhu olunokubona kwangaphambili lonke ucelomngeni lwenkululeko. Yiyo loo nto bequka iGatya V, benikela inkqubo yokulungisa okanye yongezelelo. Kwiinkulungwane ezimbini, iintlawulo ezingama-7 zivunyiwe, ngamnye ulwamkelo kukungabikho kokusesikweni ngokwembali okanye ukuguqulwa kwemilinganiselo yesizwe. Ezi zindululo azidweli nje uluhlu lwamalungelo; zichaza ulwalamano phakathi kommi norhulumente, kwaye zihlala zingumbandela onzima weengxoxo kwiinkundla, amagumbi okufundela, kunye nezikolo. Abafundi kunye nezikolo, ziqonda okuquluvo olukuko ngezantsi kunye nomxholo we-aseMelika.

Inkqubo Yokulungiswa Komthetho: Indlela Engagqibeleliyo Yokutshintsha

Ukuguqula umGaqo-siseko kunzima ngabom. Ukulungisa kungacetyiswa yivoti yesibini sesithathu yezindlu zomabini zeBhunga okanye yindibano yesizwe eceliweyo ziindlu zowiso-mthetho ezimbini (ezilandelayo azizange zisetyenziswe). Ukwenziwa kwemiqathango kufuna imvume yeendlu zowiso-mthetho ezintathu ezinesine (okanye ngeendibano zikarhulumente, ezisetyenziselwa uGaqo-nkqubo lama-21 kuphela). Lo mqobo uphezulu uqinisekisa ukuba iinguqu ezixhaswe ngokubanzile ngokuba yinxalenye yoMgaqo-siseko. Njengesiphumo, i-ampermentment iphatha ubunzima obunzulu bezobupolitika nobusemthethweni.

IBhili Yamalungelo: UMthetho Wokuqala Ohlaziyiweyo Olishumi

Ngonyaka wewaka linamakhulu asixhenxe anamashumi asithoba anesibhozo, iBhili yamaLungelo yaba yimveliso yeAnti-Federalist efuna intelekelelo ecacileyo kuphatho lwamazwe. UJames Madison ekuqaleni wabhalisa ishumi elinesibini lezothutho; ezokuqala ezimbini (ukuqulunqwa kombutho wombutho nentlawulo yengqungquthela) akuzange kwamkelwe. (Intlawulo yanconywa ekugqibeleni ngo-192 njengoMphetho-ma-ma- 27.) Ishumi eliseleyo laba lisiseko senkululeko yasekuhlaleni yaseMelika.

UMthetho Wokuqala Ohlaziyiweyo: Inkululeko Entlanu

UHlaliso Lokuqala lungavumeli ukuba kwenziwe naluphi na umgaqo-siseko "ukuhlonela ukusekwa konqulo, okanye ukunqanda ukuqheliselwa kwalo ngokukhululekileyo; okanye ukuthomalalisa inkululeko yokuthetha, okanye yokushicilela; okanye ilungelo labantu lokuhlanganisana ngoxolo, nokubongoza uRhulumente ukuba alungise izityholo. [[FLT:] [12], iNkundla ixhasa ilungelo labafundi lokunxiba iingalo ezimnyama kwimfazwe ye-Vietnam, ivakalisa ukuba abafundi abahliswa amalungelo abo asemthethweni. [[FLT:]] [FLT]] i-Tinkerv v. [2] [12] [12], i-F.[194]

Uhlaziyo Lwesibini: Ilungelo Lokuthwala Izixhobo

"IMilitia elawulwa kakuhle, eyimfuneko kukhuseleko loRhulumente olukhululekileyo, ilungelo labantu lokugcina nokuthwala Iizixhobo, alizukumonyulwa. Intsingiselo yesibini yokuLandliswa kweNkundla ePhakamileyo yaxatyiswa kude kube nguMgaqo-mva-mva. Izigqibo zeKonto ePhakamileyo [[FLT:] [[FLT]]] [[FLT]] [5]] uqinisekisa umntu ukuba nento elungileyo yokudubula imilonyele yenyama ngaphakathi kwekhaya, negxaso. [[FLT] uviko-DMT]. [iincog.[5] [iK] [ir.5]

UMthetho Wesithathu Ohlaziyiweyo: Ukuhlanganiswa Kwamajoni

Oku kulungiswa okunqabileyo kuyalela ukubekwa kwekota yoxolo yamajoni nakweyiphi na indlu ngaphandle kwemvume yomniniyo. Yayiyimpendulo engqalileyo kuqheliselo lwamaBritane olwacaphukisa amajoni omkhosi. Ngelixesha ingakumbi ingasebenzi namhlanje, igxininisa umgaqo wokulawula umkhosi kwaye ikhe yacatshulwa kwiimpikiswano ezinxulumene nemfihlo.

UMthetho Wesine Wokwenziwa Komhlaba: Uphando Nezinto Ezithile

UHlomelo lwesine lukhusela "ilungelo labantu lokukhusela abantu kubantu babo, izindlu, amaphepha, kunye neziphumo, ngokuchasene nokuphengulula nokuxhuzula okungekho ngqiqweni. Isitshixo singu "ulwazelelelo"", kwaye ufuna isiqinisekiso esixhaswe ngokunokwenzeka. Umthetho wokususa, osungulwe Mapp v. Ohio [1961] [1961], uyalela ukusetyenziswa kobungqina obufunyenweyo ekuphulweni kwentengiselwano. Imingeni yanamhlanje ibandakanya imicimbi yamanani, njengesigqibo seNkuNkundla .. California[FLT] [12:3]] (1961]]]) (1961%) (1960) (1960) (iiiiiiiinxanxa-mali esoloko ukukhangela iseli ebhaxa lokubanjwa.

UHlaliso lweNtloko: Inkqubo efanelekileyo nokuzithethelela

IsiHlanzo sesihlanu siqulethe izikhuseli ezininzi: ukugwetywa okukhulu kwabachopheli-tyala abanzulu, ukwalelwa kwemiqathango ephindwe kabini, ukunqandwa kokunyanzelwa kokuzinyanzelisa, inkqubo efunekayo yomthetho, kunye nembuyiselo yempahla yabucala ethatyathwe ukuze isetyenziswe nguwonke wonke. "Miranda amalungelo" aziwayo asuka imanda v. Arizona[ [1966], efuna amapolisa ukuba azise iikrokreqo zamalungelo awo okuhlala buthule nokufumana igqwetha ngexesha lokuncinwa kwegunya. Inkqubo efunekayo iyakuyilela imithetho engacacanga kwaye ibandakanya ukhuseleko oluninzi lwamalungelo kumazwe.

UMthetho Wesithandathu Ohlaziyiweyo: Ukumangalelwa Okufanelekileyo Kwetyala

ISithandathu IsiHlanziso siqinisekisa ukuchotshelwa kwetyala ngokukhawuleza kunye noluntu ngokubanzi, inkundla yabachopheli-tyala engakhethi buso, isaziso sazo izityholo, ilungelo lokujamelana namangqina alungileyo, inkqubo enyanzelekileyo yokunika icebiso. Gideon v. Wainwright [1963]) yabambelela ekubeni amaphondo amele anike igqwetha ityala eligqwetha ityala eligqwethayo eligqwethayo elingumthetho ogqwethayo, `a umgaqo oweyo okhokelela kwinkqubo yanamhlanje yokhuselo lukawonke-wonke. Ilungelo lokugweba kwityala kwityala lolwaphulo-mthetho lihlala lingukhuseleko ekuchasa kwingcinezelo karhulumente.

Ukuhlaziywa Kwendlela Yokuzilungisa: Izilingo Zokuvavanywa Kwabemi

Kwisuti yomthetho oqhelekileyo ongaphezulu kwama-2020, uMbetho weSebethi ulondoloza ilungelo lokuchophela ityala kwaye uthintela iinkundla ukuba ziphinde zifumane izibakala ezifunyenwe ngabachopheli-tyala ngaphandle kwemithetho ethile. Le sigqibo sisebenza kuphela kwinkundla yephondo; amaziko akanyanzelekanga ukuvavanya abachopheli-tyala, kodwa inkoliso igwetywa ngemimiselo yawo.

Ukuhlaziywa Kwemiqathango Esibhozo: Inkohlakalo Nesohlwayo Esingaqhelekanga

Ibheyile egqithisileyo, intlawulo egqithisileyo, kunye "nesohlwayo esingaqhelekanga" ayivumelekanga. Intetho ekhohlakeleyo nengaqhelekanga iye yaba sisiseko sokuphikisana ngesohlwayo sentambo. Furman v. Georgia[ [772], iNkundla ephuthiweyo ngoko igwetywe ngokusesikweni nangendlela engaqhelekanga, ikhokelela kutshintsho. [FLT:] [FLT]Greg v.[6] [7] i-6] ixhasa imimiselo ehlaziyiliweyo ekhokela ityala. Izigqibileyo zakutshanje ziye zavala isigwebo sokufa kwabancinane ([[FLT:]4]]]RGUR. v[FFF], 2005], kunye ne-ergnobon-expt orgt][2]], i-Genet orgt.[2], izigwebo ezithenjiweyo zezo zentolongo ezithiweyo.[2] kunye nezinyelelelelweyo.[2

IziHlanziso Zesi - 1000 Nezeshumi: Amalungelo Angenazigwebo Namandla Agciniweyo

ISinyusi se-Ninth silumkisa ukuba ukudwelisa amalungelo athile akuwakhathazi abanye abagcinwe ngabantu. Kuye kwacelwa ukukhusela amalungelo obuqu, njengaku Griswold v.Connecticut (65), ekwamkele ilungelo lokuzimela umtshato malunga nokuthintela ukuthintela. UMthetho weSindululo weshumi elinamashumi amathandathu ugcinelwe kumaphondo okanye abantu abanganikwanga urhulumente karhulumente okanye abalelwe kumazwe. Ngumgaqo ongundoqo kwingxoxo yorhulumente ethetha ngomdla wombango, umthetho wendalo, nomgaqo wempilo.

IsiHlayiso: Inkululeko Enciphisa Umgangatho

Emva kweMfazwe yamakhaya, iinguqu ezintathu zamkelwa ukuphelisa ubukhoboka nokumisela ukulingana okusemthethweni kwamaMerika aseAfrika.

ISiminshi seshumi elinesithathu (1865)

UHlaziyo lweshumi elinesithathu lukwalela ubukhoboka nokubotshwa kwekhoboka ngaphandle kokuba kusisohlwayo solwaphulo-mthetho. Kwakhona lunika iBhunga igunya lokunyanzelisa eli lungiselelo ngomthetho ofanelekileyo. Ngoxa laphelisa ubukhoboka bengxoxo efanelekileyo, "Ingqeqesho" yakhokelela kwinkqubo yokukhulula kwaye kamva kwingxoxo yokuvalelwa kwabantu abaninzi. Le ngxoxo isetyenziselwa ukuhlasela iintlobo zale mihla zokunyanzeleka komsebenzi nokurhwebelana kwabantu.

ISindululo seshumi elinesine (1868)

Mhlawumbi eyona nkqubo ifanelekileyo ithe yalungiswa, iSindululo se 144 sichaza ubumi besizwe, sikwalela ukuvalwa kwemithetho "amalungelo okanye ukugonywa kwabemi," kwaye iqinisekisa inkqubo efanelekileyo kunye nokhuseleko olulinganayo lwemithetho. Inkqubo efunekayo iye yasetyenziswa ukudibanisa uninzi lwamalungelo eBhili kwiizwe. Ukhuseleko olulinganayo lwaluyisiseko se [[FLT:] Brown v. ibhodi yemfundo, eyathi yafaka phantsi i-lorces ezikolweni zikawonke, kwaye izigqibo ezikhusela amalungelo alinganayo kumabhinqa, LGTQ+ abantu ngabanye. I-andmentmentation iqulethe "inyathelo lobuhlanga" ukukhetha-enzelo ngaphandle kokuba i-orhulumente ibandakanya.

UMthetho - ngqangi We - 1870

Ilungelo lokuvota "ayinakukhanyelwa okanye livalelwe nguUnited States okanye nguRhulumente ngenxa yohlanga, umbala, okanye imeko yobukhoboka ngaphambili". Phezu kwaso nje esi sithembiso, amazwe aseMazantsi afake iimvavanyo zokufunda nokubhala, irhafu yokhupho, kunye nogonyamelo lokuthintela ukuvota okuBlack de kube nguMthetho wokunyanzelisa amaLungelo ka-19656. Umthetho wokunyanzelisa usekekile kumthetho we-ID, ukuvota, ukurhoxisa, kunye nomgaqo we-preflance wabeance wabethwa phantsi i-Shelby Countyrder

Ukwandisa iFranchisse: IGama leSithoba, leThupha lama-20, kunye neMimiselo yeSibini

Isiqingatha sembali yaseMelika siquka umzabalazo omde wokwandisa ukuvota. Izilungisi ezintathu ezingundoqo ziphawula incopho.

  • ISinyuso se-Ninetenth (1920): Emva kwamashumi eminyaka esenzo sobuProfethi, amabhinqa afumana ilungelo lokuvota ngokulungisa komgaqo-siseko. Ivoti yokugqibela eTennessee yagqitywa ngummisi omnye owayenxiba i- rose ebomvu. Inguquko yaguqula ezopolitiko namalungu amabhinqa kubomi babantu bonke.
  • Irhafu yokuhlaziywa kweNkundla ePhakamileyo (1964): Irhafu yokubhexa, esetyenziswa kakhulu kumaphondo aseMazantsi ukuphelisa amaBlack cookie angamahlwempu, yalelwa kunyulo lwezwekazi. (Irhafu yovotelo yanikwa ilahleko kamva yiNkundla ePhakamileyo phantsi komqathango olinganayo kwingxelo yokhuseleko v. Virginia Board of Evolutions, 1966.)
  • UHlaziyo lweSixweso-Sixt (1971: Ukuphendula kwimpikiswano yokuba abo badala ngokwaneleyo ukulwa eVietnam babekhule ngokwaneleyo ukuba bavote, inguquko yehlisa iminyaka yokuvota ukuya kwi 18 konyulo lonke. Yagunyaziswa ngexesha elibhaliweyo (* kuphela ngaphezu kweenyanga ezintathu.)

IziHlaliso zoHlalulo: Ukuzilungisa Kurhulumente

Asizizo zonke izilungiso ezithetha ngamalungelo omntu ngamnye.

  • ISAKTENTMENTILment (1913): Inikezela ngeKhomishini yokuba irhafu yengeniso ye-vhorho ngaphandle kokwabelana ngayo phakathi kwamazwe. Oku kwasiguqula isigqibo seNkundla ePhakamileyo kwaye kwenza inkqubo yerhafu yeli xesha.
  • Sevententh Amendment (1913): Ilungiselelwe unyulo oluthe ngqo lwamaqumrhu ase-U.S. abantu, bathabathel' indawo ukhetho yindlu yowiso-mthetho karhulumente. Oku kwandisa ulawulo lwedemokhrasi kunye nolawulo lwemibutho ebuthathaka.
  • Uhlaziyo olungamashumi amabini--Ulwenzeko (1951): Umlinganiselo woomongameli obekwe kumabinzana amabini, impendulo engqalileyo kuFranklin D. Roosevelt engazange ibonwe yexesha lesine lobumongameli.
  • Uhlaziyo lweziphene olungamashumi amabini-nesibini (1992: ekuqaleni kwakucetyiswa ngo1789, le nguqu ithintela ukuhlawulwa kwemali equkunjelwayo ekuphumeni konyulo olulandelayo. Ekugqibeleni yagunyaziswa ngaphezu kweenkulungwane ezimbini kamva, imisela ingxelo yokuba kulibazisekile ukusetyenziswa kwequmrhu.

Ukuqonda Amalungelo Akho Ngokuqhelisela

Ukwazi utshintsho lomgaqo-siseko kunika abemi amandla okuqinisa amalungelo abo nokubandakanyeka kubomi boluntu. Nazi iindlela zokuyiqonda ngakumbi imfundo nobomi bemihla ngemihla:

Isiphelo: Ilifa Eliphilayo LemiHlomelo

Ulungiso loMgaqo-siseko wase-U.S. aluzizo iziphendu zomGaqo-siseko, zizixhobo ezisebenzayo zobulungisa nenkululeko. Isizukulwana ngasinye siphinda siwahlola ngokulula amatyala amatsha . Amacandelo ajongene nobunzima obutsha, ubugrogrisi behlabathi lonke, ukungalingani kwenkqubo, kunye nemigaqo egqwethekileyo enxulumeneyo. IBhili yamaLungelo yanyanzeliswa ngurhulumente kuphela, kodwa ngeSindululo se14th Demente sisebenza kakhulu kumazwe. Inkxalabo yokulungisa intengiso ithembisa ukulingana kodwa ifuna ukulwa kwenkulungwane. I-affrentengs ezikhubela izigidi zabantu. Ukuqonda ezi zimposiso, imbali, kunye nezicelo zazo ezikhoyo ngoku zisebenza ukukhusela amalungelo abo nokuthabatha inxaxheba kwiprojekthi ye-demokhrasi eqhubekayo. Kunye ukuqinisekisa ukulingana nobunzima bephulo-demo-demo-mast, kodwa abafundisi abanikela inyathelo lokufundisa izicelo, ukubuza, ukuphendula, nokunika imbali, kunye nokufunda: imbali, inkququququququ