Ukuqonda umgaqo-nkqubo kaRhulumente ochaseneyo noMthetho woBukhosi

Inkqubo yomthetho yaseMerika isebenza phantsi kwesiseko solawulo lwezolawulo lwendalo ezimbini ezimiselwe nguMgaqo-siseko wase-U. iSupremacy Claus kwiGatya le-I VI ivakalisa ukuba umthetho wesizwe ngumthetho ophakamileyo welizwe, kodwa uMphengululo weSihlalo weshumi elinesithoba ugcine onke amagunya anganikezelwanga kurhulumente karhulumente karhulumente olawulayo kumazwe. Oku kudala uxinzelelo olunamandla apho amazwe anokusebenza khona njenge "iizifundo zedemokhrasi" ngelixa lesizwe" ngelixa umthetho worhulumente wolawulo-demokhrasi" lowiso lwesizwe umisela umgangatho okanye umgangatho oxhomekeke kummandla. Umgaqo owiswano oluthiyo lwesizwe ubeka umthetho ongqubanayo nolungenayo, oboniswayo, kunye neenkundla zemidlalo ezidla ngokusetyenziswayo. Ukuqonda lo mthetho ulungele ukuqonda indlela imithetho yokuzinzo oluyalela nokuchaphazela kuyo yonke into kwiintengiso.

Iziphumo zonyuso-mthetho oluphakathi komthetho, imisebenzi yoshishino, irhafu, kunye nenkululeko yomntu ngamnye. Kubafundisi-mfundo nabafundi, uhlalutyo lwemeko yehlabathi lutyhila iziphumo ezisebenzisekayo zoyilo lomGaqo-siseko. Ngeli ngezantsi, sihlola iindawo ezintandathu apho ungquzulwano `okanye intsebenziswano ) phakathi korhulumente norhulumente ulolonga inkqubo kunye nobomi bemihla ngemihla.

Ufundo lwetyala 1: Ukwenziwa kwasemthethweni

Ukubekwa komthetho kwe-cannabis ekusetyenzisweni kwezamayeza nokuzihlaziya kusengumzekelo ophambili wemfazwe yephondo. Ngaphantsi koMthetho we-Substances (CSA oLawulweyo, umya uthathwa njengeSiko leMiringa, uthwele izigwebo ezinzima zikarhulumente zokufumana, ukusasaza, nokulima. Kodwa ukususela ngowe-1996, xa iKhalifoniya yaqala ukusetyenziswa komsayini osemthethweni, amaphondo angama-38 kunye neSithiligiya laseColumbiya aye amisela imithetho yezonyango okanye yokusebenzisa ii-kannabis. Oku kudala indawo engwevu esemthethweni apho amashishini asemthethweni karhulumente asebenza ngokuchasene ngqo nomthetho worhulumente.

Ibhayirhandi YaseCole Nentsalela Yayo

Ngexesha lolawulo lwe-Obama, uSekela-Attorney uJames Cole wakhupha i-memorandum (203) eyalela abatshutshisi borhulumente ukuba bangalubekeli umgaqo-nkqubo kwiimeko ezazinenkqubo zolawulo ezomeleleyo. Oku kwanika intengiso yokhuseleko lwentengiselwano. Noko ke, ngo-2018, iAttorney General Jeff Sessions yasusa iCole Menanderandum, ibuyisela ingqiqo epheleleyo ku-U.S. Attorneys. Nangona kungenxa yoko ukuditya, iBhunga liquke iRobaker-Far amenter kwityala le-appropries ukususela ngo-2014, ithintela iSebe loMgaqo-yo-Jajini ekusebenziseni kwezo zezonyango ekungeneni inkqubo yezonyango. Oku kuvumele ukuba ishishini likhule, kodwa isisongelo se-ominethi ye-omis.

Ngaphezu komthetho, le ngxabano idala iinzima ezisebenzisekayo. Amashishini eCannabis akasoloko esebenzisa iinkonzo zebhanki ngenxa yenkxalabo yemali egatyisiweyo, ezinyanzelisa ukuba zisebenze ngemali. I-SAFE Banking Act, enokuthi ivumele iibhanki zisebenze amashishini e-canbis, idlulise iNdlu kodwa ibekwe kwiBhunga elingumthetho. Okwangoku, ukumiswa kwe-[FOLT:0] [iiiiiiindawo elungele ukusetyenziswa kwemali ebhankini] i-Inteleement ne-Morement (ME) Act ekhayeni kuma-20222] umqondiso owenziweyo, nangona isimo sokurhoxilonga kwelizwe, nangona kungakhange kwenzekenga. Oku kuphumele umphumo wesandla apho abaguli kunye nakumazwe afana nobume be-Orlorgone, ukuvalela ummiselo, kwakhona, kwakhona oku kuthenjiso, iintengo zemali, iimali zemali ezi-mali ezi-toliki zemali ezi-odola-

Ufundisiso lwetyala 2: Ulawulo oluthe gqolo

Umthetho wokuthambisa ngokwembali ubungummandla opheleleyo karhulumente wesizwe phantsi kwemfundiso yamandla aphezulu omGaqo-siseko. Noko ke, amazwana amaninzi aye azama ukunyanzelisa okanye ukongezela imithetho yokufuduka yesizwe, nto leyo ekhokelela kumatyala embali yeNkundla ePhakamileyo achaza imida yegunya likarhulumente.

IArizona SB 1070 neSigwebo seNkundla Ephakamileyo

ISivumelwano soMthetho Wethu we-Enailry's Inforcement and Sated Hoursedoless Act (SB 1070) ka-2010) yayingumthetho obanzi womthetho wokunyanzelisa ukufuduka kwimbali yale mihla. Kwafuneka ukuba amagosa omthetho womthetho wesizwe amisele ukuba nabani na abame okanye abambe ukuba acinge ukuba wayengenalo olufanelekileyo kwilizwe. Umthetho wadala izigwebo zokungathwa kokuthwala amaxwebhu obhaliso. Umthetho we-Obama uthe, uphikisa ukuba ukunyanzeleka kwabantu abafudukayo ngumthwalo womthetho wesizwe. [FLT][1] [FLT]] [1] [irca v.[FLT][FLT2] [2] [2] [2], ulawulo oluphezulu lwenkundla womthetho, ubambe imiyalelo emiba yomthetho oqhelekileyo. Noko4]

Iziphumo zeSB 1070 zabona amatyala afanayo karhulumente e-Alabama, eGeorgia, naseMzantsi Carolina, amaninzi awo ajamelana neengxaki zenkundla yaye athintelwe kancinane. Ngokwahlukileyo koko, njengaseCalifornia, ireyithiwe “imithetho ye-costary” emisela intsebenziswano namagunya alawulayo okufuduka karhulumente. i-United States v. California[FLT] [208]), ulawulo lwe-Trump lucelciuml' imithetho yeKhalifoni, kodwa inkundla ixhasa igunya le California, ithelela iSirnianth Remplation kunye nemfundiso echasene nemfundiso yomthetho. Isiphumo yindawo yokufuduka eqhekekileyo apho umntu ngamnye ahlala kuyo ixhomekeke kakhulu kwimo yokugcinwa. Oku akuchaphaza abaphambukeliyo kodwa kukwakwakwakubemi bahlala kulo ngokusemthethweni.

Ukufundwa Kwetyala Lesithathu: Imithetho Yokulawula Imipu

UHlaliso lwesibini lunelungelo lokugcina nokuphatha iingalo, njengoko kutolikwa yiNkundla ePhakamileyo, imisela umgangatho womgaqo-siseko, kodwa lunesibanzi esibanzi sokumisela imithetho engaphezulu okanye engaphantsi kwemithetho yesizwe. Emva I-Diquality of Columbia v. Heller [2008] kunye [[FLT]]McDonald v. Chicago[[FLT] [2010], iNkucacisa ukuba indlela ekhoyo yomgaqo wompu. Oku kwenza ulwahlulo olunamandla phakathi kokhuseleko lwemipu kunye nemilinganiselo eqinileyo kunye nemithetho evumela ukuvumela ukuvumela.

Ukhukuliso lweRhulumente kunye noLawulo lwangaphakathi

Uninzi lwamaphondo ngezantsi neNtshona-------9 ingakumbi kuMzantsi naseMzantsi----" iye yakhupha “imithetho ethintela oorhulumente basekuhlaleni ekumiseni imimiselo yemipu engqongqo kunemithetho karhulumente. Umzekelo, iTexas iyawanqanda amadolobha afana no-Austin ekuvaleni imipu kwi-packo kawonke-wonke, kwanasemva kokudubula kwabantu abaninzi. Ngokwahlukileyo, amaphondo anjengeKhalifoniya, iNew York, kunye neMassachusetts aye amisela imiqathango emikhulu, kuquka ukuvalwa kwezixhobo zokulwa, ukuvalwa kwemijelo ebomvu, kunye nokulinda. Umthetho we-Un - Free - red Handgun Act ufuna imikhombe emitsha yokukhusela imfuno encinane, ephumelelsa intenelo yenter.

Urhulumente wasekuhlaleni umisela imimiselo esisiseko kuMthetho wokuLawula iGun ka-1968 kunye noMthetho we-Brady, onika imiyalelo yokuhlola imvelaphi yentengiselwano ngabarhwebi abagunyaziswe yimvume. Noko ke, obizwa ngokuba “ngumlonyeni uvumela abathengisi babucala ukuba bakhuphe uvavanyo kumaphondo amaninzi. [ [Bipartan Social Confect [[FL]] Act ] kuvavanyo olusemva lwama-20222] lwezibo ezithengi phantsi kwe- 21 kwaye lunika inkxaso yemithetho ebomvu yeflegi e-flegi, kodwa alukhange luvale umsantsalo wabucala. Njengomphumo, ummi waseChicago uyakwazi ukuya kumbuso wommelwane otheneyo, ngoko ubuyisela umbangonyaka-o-onke phakathi kwemibhobhobho. Ityala ye-R.[22] Isivumelwano se-R.[2]E.[2]

Ukuhlolisisa Imeko 4: Imithetho yokusingqongileyo

Umthetho wokusingqongileyo unika umzekelo obalaseleyo wentsebenziswano yemithetho-siseko, apho urhulumente wesizwe emisela imigangatho encinci kwaye urhulumente anokuthi amkele imigaqo engqongqo. UMthetho we-Coocrain Air, Coocter Water Act, kunye noMthetho wokulondolozwa kweManzi neNkxaso yeZibonelelo zeZibonelelo zonke ziquka amalungiselelo okuzalisekisa urhulumente. Noko ke, ukungavisisani ngokulandelelana kwemigangatho karhulumente, kwaye amandla karhulumente okuyidlula, kwaye kukhokelele ekunyuseni iprofixe kunye nenkqubo yokuntywilijiswa.

I-oyile ye-CPF i-CPF i-CPF.

IKhalifoniya ime ngendlela ekhethekileyo phantsi koMthetho we-Cease Air Act: ngenxa yokuba inemilinganiselo yezithuthi ezikhuphayo ngaphambi kokuba urhulumente worhulumente amise eyayo, urhulumente angafaka isicelo sokuchaphaza kwe-EPA ukunyanzelisa imilinganiselo yayo engqongqo. Ukususela ngo-1970, iKhalifoniya ifumene imida emininzi, ivumela ukuba imisele imida kwigesi edangazayo, i-nitrogentoxia, kunye nento edityanizayo. Amanye amazwe angasebenzisa imigangatho yeKhalifoni yase kwicala le-Clifonia ekwicandelo 177 loMthetho, ayile imilinganiselo yesizwe yamazwe angaphezulu kwezilishumi elinesibini. Ngonyaka, ulawulo lwe-Truslifornia luye luzilawula iigesi ezishushu ezihambayo, olukhokelela ekumangalweni. Ulawulo lwe-Biden lungabuyiselwa kwi-192222-Epars (irvectives) kwaye lunikezela ngemiqatha le-Arn, izigwebo zoogromes `[0] ezihamba-oglorlkn

Ngaphandle kwezithuthi, amazwana ahlukene kakhulu kwindlela asebenzisa ngayo ukhupho-mbane wezityalo, imilinganiselo ekwazi ukuhlaziywa, kunye nokulahlwa kwenkunkuma. ITexas, ngeli xesha ikhokeli kumandla omoya, ibeke imigaqo yembali echasene ne-EPA kwizityalo ezitshiswe ngamalahle kwaye ibandakanyeke ekuthinteleni iCec Power Plan. Okwelixesha, amazwe aseMntla-ntshona athatha inxaxheba kwi-Gregion Gastifinitive (RGI), inkqubo ye-cap ne-trade inkqubo karhulumente engagunyaziswanga. Le migaqo yorhulumente ingqubanisela ivelisa iimpuza nenkcitho, iphembele isantya sorhwebo olucocekileyo, kunye nokuvavanya imidalo yegunya lorhulumente phantsi koMkhosi ka-Calcillous kunye noMgal.

Isifundo seNkqutyana 5: Imfundo iZiko

Imfundo ingumsebenzi wesizwe nowasekuhlaleni phantsi koMphetho-mda weSihlaziyi seshumi, kodwa urhulumente wesizwe uye wandisa indima yakhe ngokuthe ngcembe ngeemeko zemali kunye nomthetho ophawula iziganeko. Umphumo yinkqubo elungelelanisiweyo apho amazwe anengqiqo ephawulekayo khona kwaye apho urhulumente usoloko evelisa iziphumo ezingacwangciswanga.

Umfundi Ngamnye Uphumelela Kumthetho Nobugocigoci Belizwe

I-All Students Fuevered Act (ESSA), etyikitywe kumthetho ngo- 2015, yathatha indawo ye-Aremin Child Eshiyw Behind (NCLB) yaza yabuyisela ulawulo oluthe ngqo ekuphenduleni imilinganiselo yokuvavanya kunye nemigangatho yokuvavanya kumazwe. Phantsi kwe-NCLB, amazwe kwakufuneka avavanye abafundi rhoqo ngokufunda nangezibalo kunye nokufumana amaxhoba aphezulu, nezigwebo ezinzima ezithe zathi zaphelelwayo, ezinye izigqibo ezithi zahlala zigxininisa kwizikolo ezidipolisiweyo okanye iikholeji, kwaye ezimbalwa zivumele ukuba zizenzele iinjongo zazo, zimisele usukelo lwazo, kwaye zigqibelele kwiinkalo eziphezulu zokuhlola.

Umthetho womanyano lwamazwe ukwaphembelela imfundo ngemithetho yamalungelo abantu .Isihloko se-IX (geneder equity) kunye no-Anters abanemithetho yemfundo enqanda ukukhubazeka (IDEA). kodwa ukuphunyezwa kwale mithetho kuyahluka. Umzekelo, amazwe aye athatha iindawo ezahlukeneyo ngendlela afanele asebenzise ngayo abafundi abakhuphela kude amalungelo, kunye nezinye izikolo ezifuna ukuba zivumele ukuthabatha inxaxheba ngokuhambelana nobuntu obufanayo kunye nabanye abadlulisa imithetho ekwayalelayo. ISebe lemfundo elicetyikisiweyo phantsi kolawulo lweBhinden lijongene nemingeni esemthethweni, elishiye izikolo zikwimeko yokungaqiniseki. Ngokufanayo, ukuxhasa imigangatho yesikolo, iinkqubo zokufundisa (ngokunjalo ukusetyenziswa kwe-Rhulumente, okuthi kamva, okuthi kuthi kuthi kuthi kuthi kumiselwe ezinye iimfuno zemithetho yemithetho ye-otitshala, kunye neemfuno ze-credianstive, zonke iimfuno zemithetho zemithetho zemithetho, kunye neemeko ezinkulu zemfundo, iziphumo zemfundo, iziphumo eziphambili, iziphumo ezikhokelela kwi

Isifundo Sesi - 6: Imithetho Evelisa Impilo Neyokuqhomfa

Kwiminyaka emalunga nama-50, isigqibo seNkundla Ephakamileyo Roe v. Wade [773]) wanika umgaqo-siseko wesizwe welungelo lokuqhomfa, nangona amazwana anokulawula phakathi kwemida. Uguquko [ Roe kwimithetho Dobbs v. Jackson’s Health Organization [[FLT:] [20222])) uphendula umbuzo wokuqhomfa okusemthethweni kumaphondo, ibangela ukunyuswa kwemithetho ekhawulezayo kwilizwe lonke.

Umhlaba Ongasemva Wezambuku

Kwinyanga ezithile zesigqibo amaDobbs , amazwana ayi-13 aye abangela “malunga nokuphela kwento” ngokuphuma komqhomo ngemithetho ekhoyo okanye umthetho omtsha. Ezi zinto ziquka amaphondo anjenge Texas, Oklahoma, kunye neMissouri, apho ngoku ukuqhomfa kungekho mthethweni ngaphandle kweemeko zongxamiseko okanye ukudlwengula (ngokungafaniyo). Ngelo xesha, amanye amazwe afana ne California, New York, kunye ne-Illinonia athenjiswa yimithetho ekhusela kunye nokwandisa ukufikelela, kuquka izikhuseli nezigula eziphuma ngaphandle kobuzwe. Oku kuye kwadala ulwahlulo olucacileyo lwamazwe apho abafazi abafana noLouisiana kufuneka bahambe iimayile zolwaphulo-mthetho, uhambo olunzima oluthe kruntlulwelo lwemithetho yokukhupha inzala yeminxeba okanye ukuvala imiyalelo.

Indima karhulumente karhulumente ishiyekile. Ulawulo lweBhiden luchase ukuba imithetho karhulumente, enjenge-Emergency Medical Treat and Labor Act (EMTALA), ifuna izibhedlele zinikezele ukuqhomfa kwiimeko zongxamiseko, kwanakumazwe okuthintelweyo. Le ndawo yavavanywa kwinkundla, kwaye iNkundla ePhakamileyo yavumela uIdaho's kufuphi-all ukuvalwa kokusebenza ngelixa kuyaqhubeka. IBhunga alikadlulisi lungelo lokukhupha ukuqhomfa, ishiya umba uphele umva ngokupheleleyo kwiimeko. [[FLT:]] [0] Inkundla yeNkungagqibeleliyo yeNkundla yeNkundla ePhakamileyo ingu-[FLT] ivumela ukuba kusebenze i-opleementation. [2] i-United States:24] [FTP]

Isiphelo

Uphando lwetyala lesithandathu olungasentla lubonisa ukuba impembelelo karhulumente norhulumente norhulumente akangomthetho wesizwe ithetha nje kuphela ngokuchaphazela ubomi bokwenene, ushishino, nemida yezobugqeba. Ukusuka kwi-cannabis zoqoqosho kunye nokugcinwa kwamalungelo eengingqi, ukukhuselwa kwemekobume, ukukhuselwa kwemfundo ekhoyo, ukulungelelaniswa kwamandla phakathi korhulumente kunye norhulumente, ulawulo lweziko lorhulumente nolawulo lwezolawulo, iziphumo ezichaphazela wonke umntu waseMelika. Ulawulo lomthetho wesizwe kwimimandla efana norhwebo kunye namalungelo abantu abahlala kulo lonke ilizwe, kwaye iinkundla zidlala indima ebalulekileyo ekuchaseni iingxabano. Njengokuba iBhunga-mthetho nesebe eliphetheyo libeka imigaqo emitsha kwimicimbi enjenge-Atlantine, kwaye njengoko ithetha ngemiqatha yezolawulo lwezolawulo lwezwe, iya kuqhubeka ukuguquka kwemfundo kunye nokusetyenziswa kwemithetho yezomthetho yezomthetho yezomthetho kunye nokulawula.