UHlaziyo lweshumi elinesine kuMgaqo-siseko waseUnited States, olwagunyaziswa ngowe-1868, luye lwamiselwa njengesiseko somthetho wamalungelo abantu baseMerika. Amalungiselelo alo alo alo alolonga ulwalamano phakathi korhulumente wesizwe, amaphondo, kunye nabemi ngabanye. Akukho ndawo athe angqineke enzulu ngakumbi kunemfundo kawonke-wonke, apho isiqinisekiso sokupheliswa kokhuseleko olulinganayo kunye nenkqubo efanelekileyo besingumbandela wokubekwa komgaqo wesizwe ngaphezu kwenkulungwane. Ukuqonda ukuHlaliswa kweGawula kweshumi elinesine kubalulekile ekuqondeni iziseko ezisemthethweni zethuba lemfundo namalungelo abantu eMerika.

Ulungiso lwamiswa ngexesha lokwakhiwa kwakhona kwemfazwe yamakhaya. Lwayilwa ukubhukuqa icandelo lokuqala, elimisela ubumi beNkundla ePhakamileyo kwisigqibo se .Dred Scott v. Sandford [1857], eyayikholelwa ukuba amaMerika ayengengobemi. Ulungiselelo olusemgangathweni lwama-Afrika alufumaneki kwicandelo lawo lokuqala, olumisela ubumi bobumi kwaye luqulathe izigaba ezintathu: amalungelo okanye i-Immunie Clausce, i-Bactscolaus Proce, kunye ne-Monuble Provice Ekhuselwayo. I-Claus Programme iyamlela ekumgiseni nawu nawu nawu wobomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla ngaphandle kwenkqubo esemthethweni. Ukhuseleko lwe-Classicspole lufuna ukuba kunikezelwe ukhuseleko olulinganayo phantsi komthetho wonke ulawulo lwalo lonke lwabantu.

Ukhuseleko Olulinganayo Namathuba Emfundo

ISibonelelo esilinganayo soKhuselo lukaClaus siye saba sesona sicwangciso esisoloko sicaciswa soMmiselo weshumi elinesine wezemfundo. Sisetyenziselwa ukucel'ilwa ukulwa nocalucalulo lobuhlanga, ukwahlulwa kwemali yesikolo, kunye nokuvunywa kolwaphulo-mthetho. Umbuzo ongundoqo kwezi meko kukuba ngaba isenzo sikarhulumente esiphatha abantu ngokwahlukileyo sinokugwetywa ngokwenjongo esemthethweni kawonke-wonke. Iinkundla zisebenzisa imigangatho eyahlukeneyo yokuhlola kuxhomekeka kulwahlulo olubandakanyekileyo, ngokweenzelelana kobuhlanga olufumana umgangatho ophezulu wokuhlola okusemthethweni.

Ukuphelisa [[UMTL: 0] I-Dure [[FTL: 1] I- Secorvation

Ukusetyenziswa okubalulekileyo kweQumrhu Elilinganisiweyo lika-Claus kwimfundo kwafika Brown v. Ibhodi yemfundo yaseTopeka (1954). Kwesi sigqibo sangqinelanayo, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yathi ukucalucalulana kwabantwana ngokweentlanga kwizikolo zikawonke wonke kwaphula uKhuselo olulinganayo luka-Claus. INkundla yayayayayayayama imfundiso eyahlukeneyo kodwa elinganayo eyamiselwa Plesby v. Ferguson (1866), ifumani ukuba izikolo ezidukileyo azifani ngenxa yokuba zazenza abantwana abambalwa bazive bephantsi. Isigqibo sasiyindawo yoloyiyo yolo lwezelelo lwezenteko yamazwe yasekuhlaleni lwamazwe amazwe amazwe azimeleyo.

Noko ke, uzalisekiso lwe Brown lwalungelula. Brown II (1955], iNkundla iyalela ukuba ideseconux iqhubeke ngesantya sangabo bonke, ibinzana elivunyelweyo ukuxhathisa okubalulekileyo nokulibazisa. Izikolo ezininzi kuMzantsi zibandakanyeke kakhulu, zivala izikolo zikawonke wonke kunokuba zizenze zidibanise. Yathatha ungenelo lwamatyala afana [[FT.5]] Cooper v. [FLT: 5,5]] [195]] [195]) ukuqinisekisa ulawulo lwamashumi eminyaka. Nasemva koko, izikolo ezininzi zaseMelika zihlala zisebenza ngokuhambelana kweendlela zokuzinzisa, iindlela zokuphakamisa iimeko, ukunyusa intengongonwa zedinga idinga [Fote:][5]

Ukubonelela ngeNkxaso yeSikolo

I-Acten Protection Claus icelelwe ukuthetha ngeendawo ezidityanisiweyo kwisikolo. Kumaphondo amaninzi, izikolo zikawonke-wonke zixhaswa kakhulu ngerhafu yempahla yasekuhlaleni, edala ukwahluka okubalulekileyo ekuchitheni imali phakathi kwesithili esifumileyo nesihlwempu. San Antonio Independent School District v. Rodriguez[[FLT] [1903] [7773], iNkuNkundla ePhakathiswayo yezoshishino yezemali igqibe kwelokuba imfundo asiyonto engundoqo phantsi kwe-U.S. umGaqo-siseko kunye nokungahlawulwa kwerhafuthelo esekelwe kwirhafuyo yempahla yasekuhlaleni ayizange ingqulanise ngokunelisaneyo iminyango yezentengo yomthetho yezentengo.

Emva [[NTLT:0] Rodriguez, abalawuli baphethulela kwiinkundla zorhulumente kunye nomgaqo-siseko wesizwe ukuba bacel ’ umngeni ukuxhasa ngemali engekho mthethweni. Iinkundla ezininzi zelizwe zibambelele kwelokuba umgaqo-siseko wazo ophakamileyo ufuna ukusasazwa okuthe tye kwinkxaso-mali yemfundo, nto leyo ekhokelela kutshintsho olubalulekileyo kumazwe anjenge New Jersey, Kentucky, kunye neWashington. Ezi zigqibo zimvo zikarhulumente zisoloko zichaza imigaqo elinganayo yokukhusela kwimimiselo yesizwe kububanzi obungaphezulu kune-U.S. Inkundla ephakamileyo itolike umgaqo-siseko soHlungiso lwe-14. Ingxoxo eqhubekayo ngenkxaso yesikolo ihlala inye yezona ndawo zisebenzayo kwimfundo yomthetho kunye nenkqubo yemithetho yezemfundo.

Isenzo Esiqinisekisayo Kwimfundo Ephakamileyo

Omnye ummandla ongundoqo we-14th Amendment pixel kusetyenziso lohlanga kwi-opensile. Umbuzo ongundoqo ngowokuba ngaba iinkqubo zokuvuma uhlanga ezingaziyo zilungiselelwe ukukhuthaza iiyantlukwano ze-Edicial Claus. Regents zeYunivesithi yaseKhalifoniya v. Bakke[[FLT] [1988]), iNkuNkundla ePhakamileyo yabambelele kwelokuba ngoxa umlinganiselo wohlanga wawungavumelani nohlanga, uhlanga lungasetyenziswa njengelungu elinye kwimiba yolwamvo ezininzi ekuvulweni kweminyaziso yezifundo ezahlukeneyo ukuze kufumane inzuzo yequmrhu labafundi.

Kangangamashumi eminyaka, iNkundla yaqhubeka icombulula umlinganiselo ovumelekileyo wokuvuma uhlanga. Griteper v. Bollinger [2003], iNkundla yaxhasa iYunivesithi yaseMichigan Law School ulwamkelo oluvumelekileyo, oluthathwa njengelungu elinye kwimpindo ebanzi. Noko ke, iNkundla yakwabetha iYunivesithi yaseMichigan's' yangena phantsi kwendlela yokwamkelwa, enika iingongoma ezisekelwe kuhlobo oluhambayo. [[FFFF]] [5] kunye ne-egraftiegg. [ethe]

Inkqubela Elindelekileyo Namalungelo Abafundi

I-System Processor Claus yeSindululo seshumi elinesine soLawulo lukarhulumente ikwane inegalelo elinzulu kwimfundo kawonke-wonke. Ikhusela abafundi kwisenzo sikarhulumente sobuqu kwaye iqinisekisa ukuba imigaqo esisiseko ifanelekile kwizikolo inikwe imigaqo efunekayo echaza amalungelo abafundi abajamelene nokugxothwa, kunye nezinye imvume.

Inkqubo Efanelekileyo Yoqeqesho Lwesikolo

IGos v. Lopez[FLT:] [1997], iNkundla ePhakamileyo yathi abafundi besikolo sasekuhlaleni banempahla esemthethweni kunye nomdla wenkululeko kwimfundo yabo. Ngoko ke, izikolo azinakukwazi ukunqumamisa abafundi ngaphezu kweentsuku ezilishumi ngaphandle kokubanika ukhuseleko olusisiseko. Inkundla ifuna ukuba abafundi banikwe isaziso ngezityholo ezinxamnye nabo kunye nethuba lokunikela icala labo lembali ngaphambi kokuba bajike. Eli tyala limisele ukuba kwanakwimeko yemfundo yesikolo, urhulumente umele asebenze kakuhle kwaye anikezele ukuviwa ngendlela ecacileyo phambi kokuba ahluthe umntu onomdla.

Imigaqo ye Imithetho esetyenziswa kumfundi okhutshiweyo, kwaye iinkundla ezininzi zinyuse ukhuseleko oluqhelekileyo lokugxotha kunye nezinye iintlobo zoqeqesho. Iimfuno ezithile zenkqubo efunekayo ziyahluka kuxhomekeka kubungakanani bogunya. Ukuyekelela okufutshane, incoko engacwangciswanga nomfundi ingaba yanele. Ukugxothwa ixesha elide, ukuva okuthe ngokomthetho ngethuba lokubiza amangqina kunye nobungqina obukhoyo kuyafuneka ngokusesikweni. Ezi zinto ziqinisekisa ukuba abafundi abasohlwaywa ngokungekho mthethweni kwaye abalawuli besikolo basebenzisa igunya labo ngokufanelekileyo.

Ukukhuseleka Kwabafundi Abaneziphene

I-System Procesme Claus ne-Federable Protection Clause kunye zinikezela ngesiseko somthetho okhusela abafundi ngesiphene. Umthetho owenziwe ngabantu abaneziphene (IDEA) uqinisekisa ukuba ukufundisa abantwana ngemfundo efanelekileyo (FAPE) kufanelekile ukuba bafaneleke ngemfonomqobo. I-IDEA inikezela inkqubo eqinileyo yokukhusela abantwana, kuquka ilungelo lokuva ngendlela engakhethiyo xa abazali nezikolo zingavumelani ngemfundo okanye iinkonzo zomntwana.

Le nkqubo ifanelekileyo ivumela amacala omabini ukuba anikele ubungqina, ameme amangqina, kwaye aphikisane ngetyala lawo phambi kwegosa elizimeleyo lokuva. Isiseko senkqubo se-IDEA sibonakalisa amaxabiso aqukiwe kuMgqino-mva weshumi elinesine, iqinisekisa ukuba izigqibo ezimalunga nokufundisa abantwana abaneziphene zenziwe ngokusesikweni kwaye ngokufanelekileyo ziqwalaselwa iimfuno zomntwana ngamnye. Ukudibana komthetho wequmrhu nemigaqo-siseko efunekayo kuye kwadala inkqubo enamandla yokukhusela amalungelo abafundi abachanabekekileyo.

Ingxelo yamalungelo

UHlaziyo lweshumi elinesine lukwayiguqulele imfundo yaseMerika ngokubandakanya imfundiso. Le mfundiso ithi i-Access Process Claus of the 14th Amendment yenza ukuba amalungiselelo amaninzi eBhili yamaLungelo asebenze kumaphondo. Ngenxa yoko, abafundi kwizikolo zikawonke wonke bafumana ukhuseleko loMmiselo Wokuqala, uMphetho-Mgaqo-nkqubo wesine, namanye amalungiselelo omgaqo-siseko, hayi nje imiqathango yamandla orhulumente.

Imfundiso eququzelelwayo inempembelelo ebalulekileyo kwimbonakalo yabafundi. ISithili seSithili seSikolo soLuntu [1969], iNkundla yathi abafundi abawayeki amalungelo abo esiseko enkululeko yokuthetha okanye yokuthetha kwisango lendlu yesikolo. Inkundla yavuma ukuba iSindululo Sokuqala, sisetyenziswa kumaphondo nge-1455th Amendment, sikhusela intetho yabafundi ngaphandle kokuba iphazamisananezinto okanye iphazamisa amalungelo abanye esikolweni. Lo mgangatho uye wasetyenziswa kwaye waphuculwa kwiimeko ezininzi ezibandakanya amaphephandaba, izibhengezo zezopolitiki, iintetho zezopolitiki, kunye nentetho yomqondiso.

Ukhuseleko loMphetho-mda wesine wokuzikhusela ekuphandeni okungekho ngqiqweni nasekuxhuzuleni kukwasetyenziswa kwizikolo ngoMphetho-nkqubo weshumi elinesine. [[FL:0] New Jersey v.T.L.O. [85], iNkundla yathi amagosa esikolo aphantsi koMphetho weSine woMphetho kodwa aphengululo kwizikolo lufuna ukukrokrazwa kuphela, hayi unobangela ofunekayo wokufuna ukugcinwa komthetho. Lo mlinganiselo ubonakalisa iimfuno ezikhethekileyo zemeko zesikolo ngexanduva enika abafundi ukhuseleko olunentsingiselo. Ukufakwa kwala malungelo asisiseko esikolweni kucetyiswa phantse phantse phantse ukuba kufunekelele ukuphelwa komthetho opheleleyo.

Isiseko samalungelo asekuhlaleni

Ngaphandle komongo ongqalileyo wemfundo, uMphengululo weshumi elinesine unika isiseko somGaqo-siseko solungiselelo lwamalungelo abantu bale mihla. Imigaqo yayo inyuselwe ngomthetho wesizwe nangenkcazelo egweba ukukhusela abantu ekucalucalulweni emsebenzini, kwizindlu, nakwindawo yokuhlala kawonke-wonke. Iziqinisekiso ze-antement zokukhusela ngokufanayo kunye nenkqubo efanelekileyo ziziziziqinisekiso ezisisiseko apho umthetho wamalungelo abantu baseMerika wakhiwe khona.

Isihloko IX nocalucalulo olusekelwe kwisini

IKhomishini yeSihloko seSiHlomelo seZigqibo zemfundo zowe-1971 phantsi kwegunya layo lokuchitha iingxelo, kodwa lo mthetho unxulumene ngokunzulu nemigaqo yoMphengululo weshumi elinesine. Isihloko I-IX siyaluthintela ucalucalulo olusekelwe kwisondo kuyo nayiphi na inkqubo yemfundo okanye umsebenzi wokufumana uncedo lwemali karhulumente. Lo mthetho uye waba ngumqhubi oyintloko wokukhula kwamantombazana namabhinqa kwimidlalo kwaye uye waba linkqubo ephambili ekuchaseni ukukhathazwa ngokwesondo nokuhlaselwa ezikolweni naseyunivesithi.

ISikhuseli esilinganayo sikaClaus ngokwaso siyaluthintela ucalucalulo lwesini kwizikolo zikarhulumente. Ngoxa umgangatho wokuhlola iinkalo ezisekelwe kwisondo ungekho ngqongqo njengomgangatho wokwahlulwa ngokweendidi ezisekelwe kuhlanga, iNkundla ePhakamileyo ikholelwa ukuba iiyantlukwano ezisekelwe kwisondo kufuneka zinxulumene ngokunzulu nomdla obalulekileyo kurhulumente. Phantsi kwalo mgangatho, iinkundla ziye zayiphelisa imigaqo ekhupha abafundi kwiinkqubo okanye amathuba asekelwe kwiindima zobufana, ukuhambela phambili kokulingana kwemfundo.

Ukukhusela Iindawo Ezingangeni Mba

Plyler v. Doe (19982), iNkundla ePhakamileyo yasebenzisa iCommunity Protection Clause ukuwisa umthetho weTexas owawugodlela imali yemfundo yabantwana ababengavunyelwanga ngokusemthethweni eUnited States. Inkundla yathi abantwana abanakukhanyelwa imfundo kawonke-wonke ngenxa nje yemo yabo yokufuduka. Inkundla yagxininisa iziphumo ezitshabalalisayo zokuba ukukhatywa kwemfundo kuyakubakho kwaba bantwana nakwibutho labantu, isebenzisa umgangatho ophezulu wokuhlola umthetho waseTexas.

Isigqibo Plyler sihlala singumzekelo obalulekileyo wamalungelo eentsapho zabaphambukeli. Iyaqonda ukuba imfundo ngumsebenzi obalulekileyo wezwe nokuba ukungafuni abantwana bafumane imfundo esekelwe kwimeko yabo yokufuduka kungenza umgangatho osisigxina. Ityala ngumzekelo onamandla wokukhusela u-Celassical Claus okhuselekileyo kwisenzo sombuso wobugqeba. Cornell Law School's Legal Information Institute inika ushwankathelo olucacileyo lwemeko yePlyler noncedo lwayo oluqhubekayo.

LGBTQ+ Amalungelo noluvo lwale mihla lwesondo

Kwiminyaka yakutshanje, intsingiselo yocalucalulo lwesondo phantsi kwe-Foct Claus Protection ne-Title IX inyuswe ngokuphawulekayo. Bostock v. County [20], iNkundla ePhakamileyo yathi ucalulo ngokweziziziziqinisekiso zesini okanye isimo sobutransgender siluhlobo localucalulo lwesondo phantsi koMthetho we-Sihloko se-VII samaLungelo kaNongampu. Ngoxa [FLT] Bosstock wathetha ngomsebenzi, iinkundla ezisezantsi kunye neSebe lemfundo liye lasebenzisa indlela yokubonisa ukucaciswa ngokwezicwangciso phantsi kweSihloko-IX.

Le nkcazelo ikhokelele kwimigaqo engakumbi yokukhusela i-LGBTQ+ abafundi, beqinisekisa ukuba bayakhuselwa ekuhlukunyezweni nasekucalulweni ezikolweni. Ukucaciswa okuqhubekayo koMgaqo-nkqubo weshumi elinesine kule ndawo yeyona mimandla inempembelelo nekhuphisanayo kumthetho wamalungelo abantu, iinkundla eziqhubeka zichaza umgangatho wokukhuselwa kwesimilo sesini kunye nobufana ngokwezikolo zikawonke.

Ukulungelelanisa Ikamva

Uxwebhu lweshumi elinesine LoMthetho ohlaziyiweyo lusaqhubeka lunentsingiselo eqhubekekayo yokuphendula kwiingxaki ezintsha. Kwinkulungwane yama-21, iinkundla zisebenzisa imigaqo yazo kwimibuzo emitsha ebandakanya ukhetho lwesikolo, intetho ye-intanethi, kunye nengqeqesho. Imibuzo engundoqo yokusesikweni, ukulingana, namalungelo omntu ngamnye akhuthaza ukulungiseka iyasebenza namhlanje njengokuba yayinjalo ngo-1868.

Iinkqubo Zokhetho Lwesikolo Nezomsila

Amanyathelo okukhetha isikolo, kuquka iinkqubo zokuqinisekisa ingeniso ezivumela ukuba imali kawonke-wonke isetyenziswe kwizikolo zabucala, kuphakanyiswa imibuzo phantsi kwe-Ulinganime Protection Claus kunye noMmiselo ka-Claus. Abaxhasi baphikisa ngelithi ezi nkqubo zinika inkxaso iintsapho, ingakumbi ezo zikwizikolo ezingaphumeleliyo. Abachasi baphikisa ukuba bakhupha ubuncwane kwizikolo zikawonke-wonke kwaye banokuvumela ukuba ucalucalucalulo lusetyenziswe zizikolo zikawonke wonke. Espinoz v. Montana Isebe le-NFONT , iNkundla yasebenzisa i-Free Exectivesss, eyayamkele i-Free Claus Expressive, eququlurced kuMption, kufuneka kubekho amazwanawonga kwiinkqubo onqulo kwiinkqubo ezikhoyo jikelele ze-190.

Intetho Yamanani Namalungelo Abafundi

I-Bact Claus Process Claus yoMgangatho wezentlalo-mbini ijongene neemvavanyo ezintsha ngexesha lexesha lengingqi. Xa isikolo sinokuqeqesha umfundi ukuba athethe ngokufihlakeleyo kwi-intanethi? [[FL:0]] Mahanoy ISithili seSithili seSikolo soMgangatho B.L. [2021], iNkundla ePhakamileyo yagqiba ukuba isithili sesikolo asinakohlwaya umfundi ngee-pali zobucukubhe ezenziwe ngaphandle kwemeko-bume yesikolo, isithintela kodwa ingawushenxisi ngokupheleleyo umlomo wesikolo. Inkundla yaqonda ucelomngeni olukhethekileyo olubangelwa lunxibelelwano lwamanani kwaye yagxininisa ukubaluleka kokukhusela intetho yabafundi ngaphandle kwesikolo.

Ukudibana koMphetho-mva weshumi nane kunye nobugcisa bamanani kuyaqhubeka kutshintsha. Imibuzo ephathelele ukufihla imbilini yabafundi, ukusetyenziswa kwekhompyutha nokufikelela igunya lesikolo kwimigaqo ye-intanethi iya kufuna ukuba iinkundla zisebenzise imigaqo emidala esekelwe kwimigaqo emitsha. Ukutshintsha kwe-Grade Proce Claus ne-Monima Proce Claus Procesme kubenza bakwazi ukumelana nezi nguqulelo ngoxa begcina izibophelelo zabo ezingundoqo befuna ukulingana.

Isiphelo

UMthetho-nkqubo we-14 ungowona siseko sibalulekileyo samalungelo abemi nemfundo eUnited States. Isiqinisekiso sawo sokhuseleko olulinganayo siye sasetyenziselwa ukuphelisa ukwahlukana, ukucel ’ umngeni intlukwano yemali, nokukhuthaza ukwahlukahlukana kwezoqoqosho. Isiqinisekiso sawo sokwenza okufanelekileyo simisele imigaqo esisiseko kwingqeqesho yesikolo kwaye sikhusela amalungelo abafundi abaneziphene. Ngokubandakanya imfundiso, siye sandisa ukukhuselwa kweBhili yamaLungelo eklasini, siqinisekisa ukuba abafundi banandipha ukhuseleko lomgaqo-siseko kwana nakumasango esikolo.

Ukuqonda uMphetho-Msebenzi weshumi elinesine kubalulekile kubafundisi, abalawuli, abafundi nabemi. Asilolungiselelo nje lemfundiso esemthethweni kodwa lidinga eliphilayo lokuba ngummi olinganayo nokuphathwa ngokufanelekileyo phantsi komthetho. Njengoko izikolo zaseMerika zijamelene neengxaki ezintsha ezinxulumene nobugcisa, iiyantlukwano, kunye nokungaguquguquki, imigaqo yoMmiselo weshumi elinesine iza kuqhubeka ikhokela indlela ukuya kwindlela esesikweni nequkayo. Ukuchazwa okuqhubekayo kwale nkqubo ibalulekileyo kuya kubumba amalungelo kunye namathuba abafundi abaza kukuza kuvela.