Table of Contents

INkundla ePhakamileyo yaseUnited States ilolonga umgaqo-siseko welizwe ngezigqibo eziphawulayo ezichaza kwaye zikhusele amalungelo kunye nenkululeko. La matyala amisela imizekelo ephembelela umthetho, inkqubo karhulumente, kunye nobomi bemihla ngemihla bezigidi zamaMelika. Ukuqonda le mithetho ibalulekileyo kunika ukuqonda ngendlela engundoqo yokusebenza komGaqo-siseko nendlela eziqhubeka ziguquka ngayo ekutshintsheni kweemeko zentlalo.

Isiseko Setyala Eliphakamileyo Lenkundla

EUnited States, izigwebo zenkundla ezizingqondweni zivela rhoqo kwiNkundla Ephakamileyo. La matyala aphendula imibuzo esisiseko ngamalungelo omGaqo-siseko, igunya lorhulumente, kunye nolwalamano phakathi kwabantu nesizwe. Iinkcazelo zeNkundla zomGaqo-siseko zidala imizekelo engqinelanayo esemthethweni emele ilandelwe ziinkundla ezisezantsi, yenza izigqibo zeNkundla Ephakamileyo zibe nempembelelo ngokukhethekileyo ekuxonxeni umthetho nebutho labantu baseMerika.

Amatyala abonisa izinto ezisetyenziswa emhlabeni aquka imicimbi ebalulekileyo yesizwe, njengamalungelo abantu, inkululeko yokuthetha, ukuzimela, ulwaphulo-mthetho, kunye nemigaqo elinganayo phantsi komthetho. Isigwebo seNkundla kwezi meko sidla ngokubonakalisa imibutho ebanzi yoluntu nokutshintsha isimo sengqondo sikawonke-wonke, ngoxa ngexesha elinye siphembelela ulwalathiso lwezimo zomthetho nezezobupolitika zexesha elizayo.

Brown v. ibhodi yemfundo: Isiphelo seSikolo

NgoMeyi 17, 1954, isigqibo kwityala lemfundo leBrown v. Ibhodi yezemfundo yavakalisa ukuba "imfundiso eyahlukeneyo kodwa iyalingana". Esi sigqibo saquluntwa yiNkundla ePhakamileyo saguqula ngokusisiseko imfundo yaseMerika kunye nomthetho wamalungelo abantu. Brown v. Ibhodi yemfundo yaseTopeka, 347 U.S. 483 (1954), sisigqibo esiphawulekayo seNkundla ePhakamileyo yaseUnited States eyalawula ukuba i-U.S. imithetho yombuso yohlanga emisela umgaqo wohlanga kwizikolo zikawonke wonke yayayaphula iSikhuseli esiKhuselo esilinganayo sika-1459th Amend Amendmente, kwanokuba izibonelelo ezithe zasiwa zilingana ngomgangatho.

Isiqalo Setyala

Kwimeko ekwakufuneka ibalasele kakhulu, i-Orrever Brown egama linguMphathiswa wafaka ikhatheyidi-action ngokuchasene neBhodi yemfundo yaseTopeka, Kansas, ngo1951, emva kwentombi yakhe uLinda Brown, wakwaliwa ukuba angene kuzo zonke izikolo ezimhlophe. Brown v. Ibhodi yemfundo ngokwayo yayingeyomeko enye, kodwa endaweni yoko iqela elidibeneyo lemiba echasene nephondo lesikolo eKansas, eMzantsi Carolina, eDelaware, eVirginia, naseSithilini saseColumbia.

UThurfall olungileyo, intloko yeNaACP Evolution and Educational Fund, wasebenza njengegqwetha eliyintloko le-acttiff. (Kwiminyaka eli-3 kamva, uMongameli Lyndon B. Johnson wayeza kumisela uMadrall njengomthetho wokuqala weNkundla eMnyama ePhakamileyo.) Iqela elingokwasemthethweni lakha ityala labo kwingxoxo yokuba izikolo ezithenjiweyo zaphula i-Celasmente e-Ecult yoMphetho we-14.

Isigqibo Nengqiqo Yaso

Isigqibo sasilawula ngokuyinxenye isigqibo seNkundla iPlessy v. Ferguson, eyayikholelwa ukuba imithetho yokwahlukaniswa kohlanga yayingumGaqo-siseko logama nje amaziko ohlanga ngalunye ayelingana, imfundiso eyathi yaziwa ngokuba "yahlukene kodwa iyalingana". ISigqeba esinguMongameli u-Earl Warren sabhala uluvo oluphikisanayo, olwathi ngokusisiseko lwasikhabalwa isiseko esisemthethweni sokwahlulwa kohlanga.

Izazi ngengqondo uKenneth noMamie Clark ngoku benodoli abadumileyo nabo babekwindawo ephakathi kwimpumelelo yeLDF kuBrown v. ibhodi. Uvavanyo lwabonisa impembelelo yokukhetha abantwana abantsundu. Ngokunika abantwana abathathu kubantwana abaneminyaka esixhenxe noonodoli abane, abafanayo ngaphandle kombala, abantwana abamnyama bafumaniswe bekhokelwa ukuba oonodoli abamnyama babengaphantsi konodoli abamhlophe, kwaye, ngokongeza, ukuba babengaphantsi koontanga babo abamhlophe.

Impembelelo yexesha elide kuluntu lwaseMerika

Ukuphelisa ucalucalulo kwizikolo zikawonke-wonke zesizwe kwanika intshukumisa engundoqo kumbutho wamalungelo abantu, ukwenza inkqubela enokwenzeka ekususeni izindlu, iindawo zokuhlala zikawonke-wonke, kunye namaziko emfundo ephezulu. Ngokugatya ukuqiqa kukaPlesby v. Ferguson kunye nolawulo olwahlukileyo kodwa olulinganayo lomthetho wagunyazisa, isigqibo sabangela ukurhoxiswa kwezinto ezazisemthethweni ngoko zobukhulu bamhlophe. Sanceda ukukhuthaza umbutho wamalungelo abantu owafikelela kwisigqibo somthetho wembali ka-1960: Umthetho wamaLungelo ka-1964, uMthetho wamaLungelo ka-1966, noMthetho we-Fair Howast Act 209.

Noko ke, ukuphunyezwa komsebenzi kwangqineka kunzima. Ukuphunyezwa kweBrown v. Board (eyaziwa ngokuba nguBrown II) kwanikwa inyathelo elicothayo lokuba inkundla ishiye ide kumaphondo aseMazantsi iphele i-'sonke isantya sangaphakathi'. Oku ngokubhekiselele ekungakhawulezini konke. Kwakuya kuthabatha ngaphezu kweshumi leminyaka kubaphathi besikolo ukuphelisa izikolo. Phezu kwayo le miqobo, inani labafundi abamnyama ababhaliswe kwizikolo ezidegejiweyo eMzantsi laya kusuka kwi-40 ekhulwini phakathi konyaka ka-1970 nokuphela koweminyaka yowe-1970.

Miranda nxamnye neArizona: Ukukhusela Amalungelo Ebudeni Bokubanjwa

Emva kweeyure zokuncinwa ngamapolisa, uErnesto Miranda wavuma ukuba ufanele adlwengule aze aqweqwedise, evavanywe ukuba wayeza kusivala isono sakhe, echaza ukuba wayengacetyiswanga ngamalungelo akhe okululeka nokuthula. INkundla Ephakamileyo yavuma, ibambe loo mapolisa kufuneka azise abo bakrokrele amalungelo awo ngaphambi kokuba ancinwe.

Isilumkiso SeMiranda

Inkundla yafumanisa ukuba iziHlanziso zeNkundla zesihlanu nezeSithandathu zifuna ukuba amapolisa azise abantu abaselugcinweni ukuba banelungelo lokuhlala bethe cwaka nokuncedwa ligqwetha. Esi sigqibo sadala oko ngoku kwaziwa ngokuba siSilumkiso se-"Miranda," amagosa omthetho amele acebe ukuba akrobe ngaphambi kokuncinwa kwegunya. Ibinzana eliqhelekileyo elithi "Unelungelo lokuhlala uthulile" kunye "Unelungelo lokuya kwigqwetha" kwisiqu esisuka ngqo kulo mthetho wesiphawu.

Ngokutsho kweNkundla, ukuba amapolisa ayasilela ukwenza oko, ijaji yenkundla yezaphuli-mthetho isenokuwisa umthetho wokuba nawaphi na amazwi athethwa ngummangalelwa akanakuvunywa njengobungqina ngexesha lokuchotshelwa kwetyala. Lo mthetho wokuzikhethela uqinisekisa ukuba ukhuseleko lomgaqo-siseko lunentsingiselo kwaye lunyanzelekile, hayi ingcamango nje.

Impembelelo Ekunyanzelweni Komthetho Nokusesikweni Kwezaphuli - mthetho

Isigqibo sikaMiranda saguqula iinkqubo zamapolisa ngokusisiseko kulo lonke elaseUnited States. Amagosa agunyazisa umthetho aphuhlisa imithetho esesikweni yokwazisa abakrokreleyo ngamalungelo abo, yaye isilumkiso sikaMiranda saba yenye yezona zinto zibonakalayo kwinkqubo yolwaphulo-mthetho lwaseMelika. Umthetho umisela izingqino zokwahlula urhulumente ekucombululeni ulwaphulo-mthetho ngokukhusela umntu ngamnye nxamnye nokuzikhusela kobuqu kwanamalungelo omthetho.

Abahlalutyi bathi esi sigqibo siya kuyithintela imigudu yokunyanzelisa umthetho, ngoxa abaxhasi besithi ibalulekile ukuze kukhuselwe inkululeko yabantu. Kwiminyaka engamashumi kamva, uMenda usaqhubeka exhasa inkqubo yolwaphulo - mthetho, nangona amatyala alandelayo aye aphucula indlela esetyenziswa ngayo kwiimeko ezahlukahlukeneyo.

UGidiyon Wainwright: Ilungelo Lokufumana Icebiso Elingokwasemthethweni

Ekubeni wayengenatyala, wabongoza ijaji ukuba imnike igqwetha ngesisa. Ijaji yasikhaba isicelo sakhe. INkundla Ephakamileyo yalawula uGidiyon, isithi uMphengululo weSithandathu ufuna ukuba amatyala agwetyelwe ngetyala.

Ukwandisa Ukufikelela Kokusesikweni

Le Nkundla yayisithi uHlaziyo lweSithandathu lwelungelo lokunceda kwisiluleko lusebenza kwiinkundla zezaphuli-mthetho nokuba "amagosa enkundla yezaphuli-mthetho azimeleyo, akafanele afumane ubunewunewu." Esi sigqibo saqonda ukuba ngaphandle kokumela okusemthethweni, abamangalelwa abanakukwazi ukuqhuba inkqubo enzima yomthetho okanye bakhusele amalungelo abo omgaqo-siseko.

Kunye nelungelo lokunceda abamangalelwa bezaphuli-mthetho baseburhulumenteni, isigqibo sikaGidiyon saba nomphumo wokwandisa iinkqubo zokukhusela uwonke-wonke kulo lonke ilizwe. Amazwe nemimandla yaseka iiofisi zokhuselo lukawonke-wonke ukuqinisekisa ukuba abamangalelwa abafumana imvume esemthethweni esemthethweni, ngokusisiseko iinguqulelo zendlela yokukhusela izaphuli-mthetho.

Ukuqinisekisa Izilingo Ezifanelekileyo

Ummiselo kaGidiyon ubonisa ukuba okusesikweni akufanele kuxhomekeke kubutyebi. Ngokuqinisekisa ukuba abo bangakwaziyo ukuhlawula, iNkundla yaqinisekisa ukuba ilungelo elisemthethweni lokuchophela ityala elifanelekileyo lisebenza ngokulinganayo kubo bonke abamangalelwa, kungakhathaliseki ukuba imeko yezoqoqosho. Esi sigqibo sineziphumo ezinzulu zokusesikweni okulinganayo phantsi komthetho kwaye siyaqhubeka sibumba iingxoxo ezingokwasemthethweni malunga nokungagunyaziswa kwemali kunye nobuncwane babantu.

IMap v. Ohio: UMthetho weExcloion

Izinto ezifunyenwe ngokungekho mthethweni azinakusetyenziswa kwityala lolwaphulo-mthetho. Ngoxa amapolisa ekhangela uDollree Mappe, afumana izinto ezingcolileyo aza ambamba. Ngenxa yokuba amapolisa engakhange akhuphe isiqinisekiso sokufuna, waphikisa ngelithi izinto zifanele zicinywe njengeziqhamo zokuphendla nokuphangwa okungekho mthethweni. Inkundla ePhakamileyo yavuma yaza yasebenzisa umthetho wokugxothwa kwemithetho esusiweyo ukusuka kwiiveki-1914 eUnited States.

Umgaqo - siseko Wesine Wokulungiswa

Isigqibo seMap sinyuse ukhuseleko ekuphandeni okungekho ngqiqweni nasekuxhuzuleni okungekho ngqiqweni. Ngaphambi kwesi sigqibo, umthetho wokuzikhulula (ukungasetyenziswa kobungqina obufunyenwe ngokungekho mthethweni). Ngokubandakanya olu khuselo ngoMphetho-Mgaqo-nkqubo weshumi elinesine, iNkundla yaqinisekisa ukuba ukugcinwa komthetho wesizwe kufuneka kuhlonelwe nokufunwa komgaqo-siseko kunye nokuphangwa.

Ukuqhatha Amapolisa Aphazama Ukuziphatha

Umthetho ozinzileyo usebenza njengesithintelo nxamnye nehambo engafanelekanga yamapolisa ngokususa intshukumisa yokwenza uphando olungekho mthethweni. Ukuba ubungqina obufunyanwa ngokuphulwa komGaqo-siseko abunakusetyenziswa enkundleni, ukunyanzeliswa komthetho kunamandla okukhuthaza ukulandela iinkqubo ezifanelekileyo. Esi sigqibo siqinisa umgaqo wokuba amalungelo omgaqo-siseko amele abe nentsingiselo kubuchule bokunyanzelisa.

New York Times v. Sullivan: Inkululeko Yephephandaba

Ukhuseleko loMphetho Wokuqala namhlanje lunganika imibutho yamajelo eendaba inkululeko eninzi, kodwa oko kwakungenjalo ngeminyaka yee - 1960 xa amalungelo oomatshini bokushicilela ayethintelwa kakhulu yimithetho karhulumente eyayikhusela amanani kawonke wonke ekuhlawulweni nasekuhlawulweni.

Isiqalo Setyala

Ngo-1960, i-New York Times yapapasha iphepha elipheleleyo lentengiso evela kumbutho wabucala wacela iminikelo ukuxhasa uMartin Luther King Jr. Isibhengezo sakhankanya i-Montgomery, Alabama, isebe lamapolisa ngenxa yokuphatha kakubi kwayo uKumkani kunye namanye amalungelo abantu abaqhankqalazi. Ekuphenduleni, uMphathiswa wamapolisa L.B. Sullivan warhola iTimes e-liber, ekhankanya iimpazamo ezincinane kumbhalo wesibhengezo, njengamaxesha okubanjwa kukaKumkani.

Inkundla yaseAlabama yanika uSullivan ii - $50 000 — ezalingana nezigidi ezingama - $5 ngowama - 2023. Eli tyala labhencwa kwiNkundla Ephakamileyo, eyasiguqulayo isigqibo senkundla engaphantsi yaza yazisa uloyiso lwenkululeko yamaphephandaba.

Umgangatho wemalice

Ukuze angqine ukuba umlomo wabo uthe gqolo, igosa likawonke-wonke kufuneka libonise ukuba oko kwakuthethwa nxamnye nabo kwenziwa ngenkohlakalo. Lo mlinganiselo ufuna ukuba amagosa karhulumente angqine ukuba athetha ubuxoki ngolwazi lobuqhetseba bawo okanye ngokungakhathali kwinyaniso. Esi sigqibo sabangela ukuba kubekho indawo yokuphefumla yokungxubungwa kwamagosa karhulumente.

Ukukhusela Intetho Yedemokhrasi

IThe New York Times v. Sullivan yaqonda ukuba impikiswano enzulu ngemicimbi kawonke-wonke namagosa karhulumente uluntu ibalulekile ekulawuleni ngedemokhrasi. Ngokukwenza kube nzima ngakumbi ukuba abantu bafumane iimpahla zomrhumo, iNkundla yakhusela ubuchule bamaphephandaba bokuphanda nokunikela ingxelo ngemicimbi yoluntu ngaphandle koloyiko lokumangalelwa okugotywa. Esi sigqibo sisaqhubeka sibalulekile kwiNkqubela-mali yoQaqo-siseko soLawulo lwezolawulo lwezolawulo lwezoburhulumente kwaye siyaqhubeka sikhusela ubundilele bobuPhondo kunye nenkcaciso yezobupolitika.

Virginia Onothando: Ilungelo Lokutshata

Ngo-1967, i-Loving v. Virginia yafikelela kwiNkundla ePhakamileyo, eyathi ngamxhelo mnye yafumanisa ukuba umthetho we-Virginia ochasene ne-icegoastial. Imbono yeJaji enkulu u-Earl Warren yavakalisa ukuba umthetho weVirginia kunye nabanye abafana nawo awuphumeleli njongo inye ngaphandle kokukhuthaza ucalucalulo lobuhlanga. Ngaphezu koko, wayekholelwa ukuba imithetho ephazamisa umtshato wezizwe ngezizwe ezingafaniyo yayikukwaphulwa okucacileyo kwe-Encilic Exement Protection Claine.

Ukuphelisa Imiqathango Yobuhlanga Emtshatweni

Isigqibo sothando saphelisa imithetho ekwalela ukutshata kwabantu abavela kwiintlanga ezahlukeneyo. INkundla yaqonda ukuba inkululeko yokutshata lilungelo elisisiseko elingenakuthintelwa ngenxa yobuhlanga. Esi sigqibo asikhange siphelise nje kuphela uhlobo olubalulekileyo localulo lobuhlanga kodwa samisela nemizekelo ebalulekileyo ngokuphathelele umtshato njengelungelo lomgaqo-siseko.

Izicelo Ezingakumbi Zokulingana Komtshato

Kwisigqibo seObergefell sonyaka ka-2015, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yawisa imiqathango karhulumente, urhulumente walela ukutshata okungokwabelana ngokwesini. Ngoko ke, u-Obergefell wathi kukuchasana nomGaqo-siseko ukucalula abantu ngokusekelwe kwimbonakalo yabo yesondo ukuba bafuna ukutshata nomntu wesini esifanayo. Kwaye ikwakukwaphula ilungelo elisisiseko lokutshata. Kuwo omabini lala maqela. Kuwo omabini la maqela, iReed lityala kunye noLowervriev v. Virginia noObergefell, siyabona le ngcamango yokuba ukukhuselwa kwamalungelo abantu angokwesini esinye ngoko kunokwenziwa kwaye kwandiswa ukukhuselwa ukukhusela amanye amaqela.

IKhomishini yoNhlolo-zincwadi: Imali yeCandelo

Isigqibo seMinizers yezemali eUnited States sathi iNkundla Yokuqala yoHlomelo ithintela urhulumente ekuthinteleni iinkcitho zobupolitika ezizimeleyo zeenkampani, amaqumrhu asebenza kunye nezinye iintlangano.

Impembelelo yolawulo kukhetho

Isigqibo sakhokelela ekunyukeni kweeKomiti zeSuper PAC (Isenzo Seenqanawa Zobupolisa) ezinokunyusa zize zichithe imali engenasiphelo ukuxhasa okanye ukuchasa abo bathe bathe zwabha kwezobupolitika, lo gama nje bengalungelelani ngqo namaphulo. Abaxhasi baphikisa ngelithi umthetho ukhusela amalungelo okuthetha ngokukhululekileyo, ngoxa abagxeki bephikisa ngelithi uvumela abantu abatyebileyo kunye neenkampani ukuba basebenzise impembelelo engenakulinganiswa nonyulo kunye nenkqubo.

Ukuphikisana Okuqhubekayo Ngemali Kwezobupolitika

Izakhamuzi ezimanyeneyo zisesinye sezona zigqibo zithandabuzayo kwiNkundla Ephakamileyo kumashumi eminyaka akutshanje. Ziye zabangela iimpikiswano eziqhubekayo ngendima yemali kwezobupolitika, ukuba ngabasebenzi beshishini, kunye nokulungelelana phakathi kokukhuselwa kwenkululeko yokuthetha nokuthintela ukonakala okanye ukubonakala kobuqhetseba kwinkqubo yezobupolitika. Esi sigqibo siyaqhubeka sibumba imimiselo yezemali kunye nezobupolitika ezinyulwayo kulo lonke ilizwe.

UDes Moines: Amalungelo Abafundi Okuthetha

INkundla Ephakamileyo yathi abafundi abawathathi "awawayeki amalungelo abo omgaqo-siseko okuthetha... kwisango lendlu yesikolo." Ngenxa yoko, iNkundla yafumanisa ukuba intetho yabafundi yayinokuthintelwa ukuba iphazamisa inkqubo yemfundo. Ngenxa yokuba kwakungekho bungqina bokuphazamisa okunjalo, isikolo sasichasene nenkululeko yokuthetha yokuQala Umthetho.

Ukulungelelanisa Amalungelo Namalungelo Esikolo

Ityala leTinker laliquka abafundi ababenxibe iingalo ezimnyama esikolweni ukuze baqhankqalaze imfazwe yaseVietnam. Amagosa esikolo ayebaqeshile, nto leyo eyakhokelela kwityala elafika kwiNkundla Ephakamileyo. Isigqibo seNkundla saqinisekisa ukuba abafundi bagcina amalungelo omGaqo-siseko esikolweni, nangona la malungelo kufuneka alungelelaniswe nxamnye nemfuneko yesikolo yokugcina ucwangco nokulungiselela imfundo.

ITinker iye yaba ngumba ophambili naluphi na ucelomngeni kumalungelo asekelwe kwisikolo esiHlaziyo sokuqala. Esi sigqibo sadala isiseko sokuhlalutya amatyala abafundi, ifuna izikolo zibonise ukuba intetho yomfundi iya kuyiphazamisa kakhulu imisebenzi yesikolo ngaphambi kokuba ithintelwe.

Roe v. Wade and Dobbs v. Jackson: Reproduction Rights

INkundla yagqiba kwelokuba imithetho enjalo ichasene nelungelo lomGaqo-siseko lokuzimela. Kangangeminyaka emalunga namashumi amahlanu, uRoe v. Wade wamisela ilungelo lomGaqo-siseko lokuqhomfa, ebeka eli lungelo kwi-ST Process Claus yeSindululo se-14th kunye nelungelo lomgaqo-siseko lokuzimela wedwa.

Ukujika Kwentambo

Ngo-2022, iNkundla Ephakamileyo yabhukuqa uRoe v. Wade kwiDobbs v. Jackson Women’s Health Organization, ikholelwa ukuba umGaqo-siseko awulichazi ilungelo lokuqhomfa. Esi sigqibo sabuyisela igunya lokulawula ukuqhomfa kwimimandla ethile, nto leyo ekhokelela ekusetyenzisweni kwemithetho yokuqhomfa kulo lonke ilizwe. Amanye amazwe aye amisela imithetho engqongqo, ngoxa amanye eye akhusela okanye anyusa ukuqhomfa.

Ukuhambela Phambili Kwempembelelo Engokwasemthethweni Nezobupolitika

Ukuguqulwa kweRoe kumela enye yezona inguqulelo zibalulekileyo kumthetho-siseko kumashumi eminyaka akutshanje. Ibangele iimfazwe ezinkulu zezobupolitika nezomthetho kumgangatho karhulumente yaza yaphakamisa imibuzo ngamanye amalungelo asekelwe kwinkqubo eyimfihlo nefanelekileyo. Esi sigqibo siyaqhubeka sibumba ezopolitiko ezikhethiweyo, umthetho wesizwe, neengxoxo ezingendlela yokutolika umGaqo-siseko.

Amatyala Embali Athi Aphembelela Umthetho WomGaqo-siseko

IMarbury v. Madison: Iwebhusayithi yezeMigaqo

Marbury v. Madison (1803) wamisela umgaqo wokuhlola ityala, enika iNkundla ePhakamileyo amandla okuvakalisa imithetho engekho mgaqweni. Esi sigqibo sesiseko sadala isakhiwo sendima yeNkundla njengomxhasi wokugqibela wemibuzo yezomgaqo-siseko, ngokusisiseko exonxa ulungelelaniso lwamandla phakathi kwamasebe amathathu karhulumente.

UGqr Scott . Sandford: Isigqibo esingaqondakaliyo

Taney wagxininisa ukuba abaqhubi bomGaqo-siseko babejonge amaMelika aseAfrika njengaphantsi kwaye babengenakubanika ilungelo lokuba ngabemi, bewashiya engakhuselekanga ngurhulumente okanye iinkundla zikarhulumente. Wagweba ukuba amakhoboka ayimpahla, kungekhona abemi, ukuhluthwa kweBhunga legunya lokukhupha imithetho ehlupha abanini bamakhoboka "ilungelo lomntu". Isigqibo sawanciphisa amaMissouri ukuba ayekelele kwaye ngokunempumelelo amaBhunga ekunqandeni ukulwa ubukhoboka kulo naluphi na ummandla wase-U.S.

Yandisa ukufikelela ebukhobokeni kunye nongquzulwano phakathi koMntla noMzantsi, ifak' isandla ekuqaleni kwemfazwe yamakhaya. Emva kwemfazwe yamakhaya, esi sigqibo sapheliswa ziZigqibo zeshumi elinesithathu nezeshumi elinesine kumGaqo-siseko. Isigqibo sikaDred Scott simi njengesinye sezona zigwebo zeNkundla ezidume kakubi kunye nomzekelo olumkisayo wendlela izigqibo zokugweba ezinokukhuthaza ngayo ukungabikho kobulungisa.

Plesty v. Ferguson: Yahlukile Kodwa Yahluke

Ngo1896, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yagqiba kwiPlessy v. Ferguson ukuba amasebe kawonke-wonke ahlulelwe ngokwesizwe ayesemthethweni, lo gama nje amaziko abantu abantsundu nabamhlophe ayelingana. Imithetho egunyazisiweyo egunyazisiweyo yathintela ama-Afrika aseAfrika ukuba angabi nasabelo kwiibhasi ezifanayo, izikolo kunye nezinye izikolo zikawonke-wonke njenge-cwesters j" imithetho ebizwa ngokuba yi-"Jim Crow" kwaye yamisa "i-se-se-sexul-ebaant" imfundiso enokuthi imela iminyaka engamashumi amathandathu eza kulandela.

Isigqibo sePlesty sanceda ukuba kubekho ucalucalulo olusasazekileyo lobuhlanga nocalulo de yabhukuqwa yiBrown v. Board of Education ngo 1954. Eli tyala libonisa indlela izigqibo zeNkundla Ephakamileyo ezinokuwaqhubela phambili okanye zithintele ngayo amalungelo abantu, kuxhomekeke kwindlela iNkundla echaza ngayo imigaqo yomgaqo-siseko.

Indlela Izigqibo Ezibalaseleyo Zenkundla Ezibuchaphazela Ngayo Ubomi Bakho Bemihla Ngemihla

Ukhuseleko Lokuthetha Ngokukhululekileyo

Izigqibo zeNkundla ePhakamileyo ezingokukhululeka ekuthetheni, ekubhaleni nasekupapasheni ngaphandle kokuphazanyiswa ngurhulumente. Ityala elifana neNew York Times v. Sullivan likhusela ingxoxo kawonke-wonke eqinileyo, ngoxa ezinye izigqibo ziye zathetha ngentetho ezikolweni, kwi-intanethi, nakwii-protomstiki ezahlukeneyo zikawonke-wonke. Ezi zimisela imida eyamkelekileyo yemithetho karhulumente yokuthetha kwaye ziqinisekisa ukuba intetho engamkelekanga okanye ephikisayo ifumana ukhuseleko lomgaqo-siseko.

Amalungelo Emfihlo

INkundla iwamkele amalungelo ahlukeneyo obuqu, nangona igama elithi "umthetho" lingaveli kumGaqo-siseko. La malungelo athathwe kwiinguquko eziliqela zomGaqo-siseko kwaye aye asetyenziselwa imiba esuka ekuthinteleni inzala ukuya ekukhuseleni ulwazi. Izigqibo zeNkundla ePhakamileyo zigqiba ukuba urhulumente ungazigqogqa nini kwimicimbi yangasese kwaye xa abantu belindele ukuba bazimele.

Ukukhuselwa Kwezobulungisa

Amatyala abonisa ityala elifana noMiranda, uGidiyon, noMapp amisela ukukhusela abantu abatyholwa ngolwaphulo-mthetho. Ezi zigqibo ziqinisekisa ukuba abamangalelwa baphathwa ngokufanelekileyo, bamelwe ngokusemthethweni, bakhuselwe ekuphandeni okungekho mgaqweni nasekunyanzelweni kwemithetho.

Ukukhuselwa ngokulinganayo namalungelo asekuhlaleni

Ukuchazwa kweNkundla ePhakamileyo iQumrhu eliLingeneyo ichaza ixesha apho iinkalo zikarhulumente ezisekelwe kuhlanga, ubufanasini, okanye ezinye iimpawu zingquzulwano zingquzulana nemigaqo yomgaqo-siseko.

Amalungelo

INkundla ithethe ngamalungelo amaninzi okuvota, ukusuka ekuvoteni nasekuqinisekiseni ukukhethwa komvoti kunye nemali yephulo. Ezi zigqibo zigqiba ukuba ngubani onokuvota, zifumaneka njani izithili ezinyulwayo, nendlela eqhutywa ngayo unyulo. Zichaphazele ngqo umelo lwezopolitiko kunye nokusebenza kweenkqubo zedemokhrasi.

Ukuqonda ingcaciso yomGaqo-siseko

Imfundiso yokwalukelwa kwezinto.

Amatyala eNkundla ePhakamileyo ajonga ukutolikwa komGaqo-siseko ngeenkqubo ezahlukeneyo zentanda-bulumko. Abaququzeleli bomGaqo-siseko bakholelwa ukuba umGaqo-siseko kufuneka utolikwe ngokwentsingiselo yawo yantlandlolo xa uvunywa, ngoxa abaxhasi be-"Mgaqo-siseko ophilayo" bephikisa ngelithi imigaqo yomgaqo-siseko kufuneka ilungelelane nokutshintsha kweemeko kunye namaxabiso. Ezi ndlela zohlukeneyo zikhokelela ekususeni iziphumo ezithethsileyo kwiimeko ezibandakanya amalungelo namagunya karhulumente.

Indima Yesiqalo

Umgaqo wokuqwalasela idecis()-onikel umzekelo `````Ibonisa uzinzo nokuxelwa kwangaphambili kumthetho. Iinkundla zidla ngokulandela izigqibo zangaphambili kwimibandela efanayo, nangona iNkundla ePhakamileyo ingayibhukuqa eyayo imizekeliso xa igqiba ngokuphosakeleyo. Isigqibo sokubhukuqa imizekelo, njengoko kuboniswa kwiimeko ezifana neDobbs v. Jackson, simela ukutshintsha okubalulekileyo kumthetho-siseko kwaye sinokuba neziphumo ezifikelela kude.

Imithetho yomthetho echaseneyo

Iimpikiswano ezimalunga nokugweba nokuthintelwa zixhalabele indima efanelekileyo yeenkundla ekusingatheni imicimbi yentlalo neyezobupolitika. Abahlalutyi bezenzo zokugweba baphikisa ngelithi iinkundla zifanele zithabathe amasebe orhulumente anyuliweyo zize ziphephe ukusungula amalungelo amatsha okanye imigaqo emitsha. Abaxhasi baphikisa ukuba iinkundla zimele zikhusele amalungelo omgaqo-siseko kwanaxa ukwenjenjalo kudinga ukungenelela ngokukhutheleyo kwimicimbi ephikisanayo.

Uphuhliso Lwakutshanje Neengxaki Ezimandundu

Ubuxhakaxhaka kunye nemfihlo

INkundla Ephakamileyo ichaza indlela ukukhusela umGaqo-siseko okusebenza ngayo kubugcisa bezobugcisa, kuquka ukuphanda iicell phone, ukuqokelelwa kolwazi kunye nokuthetha ngekhompyutha.

Inyathelo Eliqinisekisayo Kwimfundo

INkundla iphinde yaziphinda yaziqinisekisa imigaqo-nkqubo yokuqinisekisa izihlandlo ezininzi, itshanje ihlasele iinkqubo zokuvuma iinkonzo zesizwe kwiikholeji nakwiiyunivesithi. Ezi zigqibo zichaphazela indlela amaziko emfundo anokusukela ngayo ucalucalulo olungelulo lwembali, okuneziphumo ezibalulekileyo zokufumana imfundo ephakamileyo.

Inkululeko Yonqulo Nocalucalulo

Amatyala akutshanje aye athetha ngeengxaki phakathi kwenkululeko yonqulo nemithetho elwa nocalucalulo, ingakumbi malunga namalungelo e-LGBTQ. INkundla iye yazama ukumelana xa iimpikiswano zonqulo zithethelela ukukhululwa kwemithetho esetyenziswayo jikelele nendlela yokulungelelanisa amaxabiso omgaqo-siseko akhuphisanayo.

Ukubaluleka Kokuhlala Usazi

Ukuqonda amatyala abalulekileyo eNkundla Ephakamileyo kukunika amandla okuwazi amalungelo akho nokuthatha inxaxheba ngokunempumelelo kwinkqubo yedemokhrasi. Ezi zigqibo zichaphazela iinkalo ezisisiseko zobomi bemihla ngemihla, ukudibana nomthetho ukuya kwimfundo nokunyamekela impilo. Ngokuhlala waziswe ngesigqibo seNkundla Ephakamileyo kunye neemfuno zayo, ungakwazi ukuxhasa izilangazelelo zakho uze uqonde isiseko esisemthethweni esilawula ibutho labantu.

Izigqibo zeNkundla ePhakamileyo zisoloko zibonisa imibutho ebanzi yentlalo kunye neengxoxo zobupolitika. Zingakhawulezisa utshintsho lwentlalo, njengokuba iBrown v. iBrown yenzela amalungelo asekuhlaleni, okanye zinokuyithoba ngokuphakamisa amagunya akhoyo. Ukuqonda indima yeNkundla ekuxoleleni amalungelo nenkululeko kunceda ekubekeni ingxubusho engokwasemthethweni neyopolitiki yangoku.

Oovimba Bokufunda Okungakumbi

Zininzi izibonelelo ezikhoyo kwabo banomdla wokufunda okungakumbi ngamatyala eNkundla ePhakamileyo kunye nomthetho womgaqo-siseko. I-United States Courts website inikela izinto zokufundisa malunga neZiko lejaji kunye nemeko yesazinge. [ Iprojekthi ye-Oyez inika ukufikelela ngokukhululekileyo kwiimpikiswano zeNkuNkundla ePhakamileyo kunye netyala. [[FLT:]] UmGaqo-siseko wesizwe unika izibonelelo zemfundo ezingadityaliyo malunga namatyala omgaqo-siseko kunye nezigwebo eziphezulu.

Ii-data ezisemthethweni nemibutho yamajelo eendaba isoloko isingatha amatyala eNkundla Ephakamileyo kunye neziphumo zayo. Ukufunda iimbono zeNkundla Ephakamileyo, nangona maxa wambi kuthanda ukucel ’ umngeni, kunika ingqiqo enegunya ngengqiqo nemithetho yeNkundla. Izikolo ezininzi zomthetho kunye nezikolo zemfundo zinikela izifundo zesisa kwi-intanethi malunga nomthetho-siseko nangeNkundla Ephakamileyo.

Uhambo Olubalulekileyo Ngamalungelo Nenkululeko Yakho

  • [[NTL:0] Ukhuseleko lwenkululeko yokuthetha: Uhlaziyo Lokuqala lukhusela ilungelo lakho lokuchaza izimvo, ukugxeka urhulumente, nokubandakanyeka kwintetho yezobupolitika, kunye neendidi ezithile ezilinganiselweyo ezifana nezisongelo zokwenyaniso kunye nokukhuthaza ukusondela kwesenzo sokuchas' umthetho.
  • Amalungelo alungileyo kwimfihlo: Nangona engakhankanywanga ngokucacileyo kumGaqo-siseko, amalungelo obuqu aye aqwalaselwa kwimo ezahlukeneyo, echaphazela izigqibo zobuqu eziphathelele intsapho, ukuzala, kunye nokhuseleko ekungeneleni korhulumente okungekho ngqiqweni.
  • Access to Education: Brown v. Ibhodi yemfundo yamiselwa ukuba imfundo eyahluliweyo ichasene nemigaqo yokhuseleko elinganayo, nangona ukufikelela ulingana kokwenyaniso kwemfundo kuselucelomngeni oluqhubekayo.
  • IJaji eliPhambili lamaLungelo: Unelungelo lokuhlala uthulile, ukuba negqwetha (kuquka igqwetha elimiselwe yinkundla ukuba awunako ukukwazi ukulithenga), kwaye ukhululeke ekuphandeni ngokungaqiqisiyo nasekuxhuzuleni.
  • Ukuvota amalungelo:[ Izilungiso zomGaqo-siseko kunye nezigqibo zeNkundla ePhakamileyo zikhusela ilungelo lokuvota nokuthintela iindlela ezithile zocalulo ekuvoteni, nangona iingxoxo ziqhubeka ngokufikelela nokunyulwa kwemimiselo.
  • Inkululeko yonqulo: IsiHlanzi sokuqala sikhusela ukusebenzisa unqulo ngokukhululekileyo kwaye siyalela ukusekwa konqulo ngurhulumente, ifuna iinkundla zilungelelanise le migaqo maxa wambi ekhuphisanayo.
  • Inkqubo eQinisekileyo: IsiHlanzi seMimiselo yesihlanu neyeshumi elinesine iqinisekisa ukuba urhulumente akanakukukuhlutha ubomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla ngaphandle kwenkqubo efanelekileyo yomthetho, ukuqinisekisa iinkqubo zobulungisa nokukhusela amalungelo athile asisiseko.
  • Ukhuseleko lwe-Equal:[ Uhlaziyo lweshumi elinesine lufuna ukuba urhulumente aphathe abantu ngokufanayo ababekwe ngokwendawo kwaye athintele ezinye iintlobo zocalulo, nangona umgangatho wokuhlola ungafani ngokuxhomekeka kulwahlulo olubandakanyekileyo.

Indaleko Eqhubekayo Yamalungelo OmGaqo-siseko

Amalungelo oMgaqo-siseko nenkululeko ziyaqhubeka ziguquka ngokwezigqibo zeNkundla Ephakamileyo, izenzo zowiso-mthetho, kunye nentsebenziswano yentlalo. Ukwenziwa kweNkundla kutshintsha ngokuhamba kwexesha njengoko oomongameli bemisela amatyala amatsha, okunokwenzeka ukuba kutshintshe indlela iNkundla echaza ngayo umgaqo-siseko. Ukuqonda le nkqubo inamandla kunceda kucacise isizathu sokuba amanye amalungelo anwe ngexesha amanye athe avunyelwa, kwaye kutheni ukukhuselwa ngokusemthethweni kungatshintsha kudlulela kwiimeko ezahlukeneyo.

Izigqibo zeNkundla Ephakamileyo eziphawula iziganeko eziphawulekayo zimela okungaphezulu kwemigaqo engokwasemthethweni engekho ngqiqweni, zichaza imida esebenzayo yenkululeko kunye namandla karhulumente kwibutho lamaMerika. Ukusuka kwindlu yesikolo ukuya kwitheko lokuvota, ukusuka kwinkundla yenkundla ukuya kwisikwere sikawonke-wonke, le mithetho ibumba amalungelo kunye neembopheleleko zokuba ngummi. Ngokuqonda la matyala asisiseko, ufumana ukuqonda ukukhuselwa okusemthethweni okufumanekayo kuwe kunye nengxoxo eqhubekayo ngentsingiselo yemigaqo yesiseko kwibutho labantu lanamhlanje.

Njengokuba imingeni emitsha ivela ngezantsi kuphuhliso lobugcisa ukuya kuphuhliso lwezithethe zentlalo-ntle, iNkundla ePhakamileyo iza kuqhubeka ichaza amalungiselelo omgaqo-siseko ngeendlela ezichaphazela amalungelo kunye nenkululeko yomntu ngamnye. Ukuhlala wazi ngezi zinto kukunceda uthabathe inxaxheba ngokunempumelelo kwiinkqubo zedemokhrasi kwaye uqonde indlela umthetho okhusela okanye obeka imiqathango yakho. Amatyala aphawula iziganeko ezixutyushwe apha anika isiseko sokuqonda umthetho wesiseko, kodwa amele kuphela inxalenye yomthetho omkhulu weNkubumba ekwamkeleka kweNkundla.

Enoba ungumfundi, ungochwepheshe, okanye ummi othenjiweyo, ulwazi lwezigqibo zeNkundla Ephakamileyo lukunika amandla okulawula iinkqubo zomthetho, ukuxhasa izilangazelelo zakho, kwaye lufak' isandla kwincoko eqhubekayo ngobulungisa, ukulingana, nenkululeko kwibutho lamaMerika. Ezi meko zisikhumbuza ukuba amalungelo omgaqo-siseko akadingeki ukuchazwa ngokuqhubekayo, ukukhusela, yaye maxa wambi ukwanda ukuze uhlangabezane nocelomngeni lwesizukulwana ngasinye.