Umgaqo wokwahlula amagunya umi njengenye yezona ndlela zokukhusela ezihlala zihleli kurhulumente ophathwe kakubi kwibutho ledemokhrasi. Ngokwahlula-hlula igunya phakathi kwamasebe ahlukeneyo .Njenganye kunye neembopheleleko zawo kunye namandla .Inkqubo idala isiseko sokuzikhusela okuzikhusela okukhuselana nokuqinisekisa ukuphendula. Ngaphandle kolwahlulo olunjalo, noorhulumente abazimisele kakuhle bangaphambukela kwingcinezelo, amandla okunikela ingqalelo ngeendlela eziphosa amalungelo athenjiweyo ukukhusela. Eli nqaku lihlolisisa iziseko zentandabulumko, imigaqo engokwembali, izifundo ezingokwembali, kunye nocelomngeni zale mihla yokwahlula amagunya, linika ukuqonda okucacileyo isizathu sokuba le ngcamango ibalulekile ekuthintele urhulumente ukugcuntlukwano.

Isiseko Sokwahlukana Kwamandla

Imvelaphi yokwahlula amagunya isukela kwinkcuba - buchopho ezifuna ukunqanda ukusetyenziswa kolawulo ngokuzimela. Isithandi sobulumko saseFrentshi uMontesquieu, kumsebenzi wakhe wewaka linamakhulu asixhenxe anamashumi asibhozo. UMoya woMthetho , waphikisa ukuba inkululeko yezopolitiko ifuna ukwahlulwa kwemisebenzi karhulumente phakathi kwemithetho, impatho-siseko, namasebe eejaji. Walumkisa ukuba “xa uwiso-mthetho kunye namagunya aphezulu enziwe kumntu omnye, okanye kwiqumrhu elinye lamagwesa, ayinakuba nankululeko. Ngokunjalo, uJohn Loccele wayeno kwangaphambili wahlulele phakathi komthetho, ulawulo, ulawulo, kunye namagunya agunya agunya anika igosalelo, ebeka isiseko sikarhulumente.

Ezi ngcamango zaphembelela ngokunzulu abalayishi bomGaqo-siseko wase-U.S. uJames Madison, ku- u-Federalist No. 51, wabhala ngokudumileyo ukuba “imfuno mayiyenzelwe ukulwa nephulo. Wathi ngokunika isebe ngalinye ubuchule nentshukumisa yokuxhathisa ukungenelela kwabanye, isakhiwo sikarhulumente singakhe silawule ngokwaso. Ngoko uMgaqo-siseko wadala amasebe amathathu alinganayo, ngalinye elinamandla ahlukeneyo namandla kunye namandla okuhlola amanye inkqubo engacetyelelwanga ukuphumelela kodwa ukulungiselela inkululeko.

Ukwahlulwa kwamagunya akuyoyantlukwano nje yokwenziwa; luzibophelelelo lwentanda-bulumko kwingcamango yokuba amandla akhethekileyo ayingozi. Lo mgaqo ngoku ubekwe kwimithetho-siseko emininzi ehlabathini lonke, nangona ukwenziwa kwawo kuyahluka. Ukuqonda iziseko zawo kunceda abemi baqonde ukuba kutheni kufuneka balumke rhoqo ukuze balondoloze olu lungelelwano.

Amasebe Amathathu Nendlela Adibana Ngayo

Isebe Lomthetho: Ilizwi Labantu

Isebe lowiso-mthetho lisebenza ngokusetyenziswa ekwenzeni imithetho. EUnited States, eli gunya lihlala kwiBhunga, iqumrhu le-bamaral eliquka iNdlu yeeNtsimbi neNdlu yabameli. Isakhiwo se-bimedral ngokwaso singuvavanyo: Indlu, kunye nemiyalelo yayo yeminyaka emibini, iyasabela ngokusondeleyo kwiimvakalelo eziqhelekileyo, ngelixa iBhunga, ngeminyaka emithandathu kunye nomelo olulinganayo, lunika unkquso nozinzo. Umthetho kufuneka ugqithe kuwo omabini amagumbi kwaye utyikitywe nguMongameli (okanye uwiswe phezu kweveto) ukuze ube ngumthetho. Oku kuntsonkothile kuqinisekisa ukuba imithetho ibonisa ukuvumelana komdla kunokuba ibe ziimeko ezinkulu.

IBhunga likwanegunya lesingxowa-mali, ukulawula imali nerhafu karhulumente. Eli gunya liyinika ingeniso ebalulekileyo kwisebe eliphetheyo, njengoko kungekho mali inokuchithwa ngaphandle kokuququzelelwa kwesivumelwano sombutho. Ngaphezu koko, iNdlu yeeNdlela kufuneka iqinisekise ukumiswa kwemibutho eyintloko kunye nezivumelwano ze-rafysance, zisebenza njengengqwalasela kwisigqibo sobumongameli.

Isebe Elinolawulo Oluphezulu: Ukuthobela Imithetho

Isebe eliphetheyo, elikhokelwa nguMongameli, linomthwalo wokuzalisekisa nokumisa imithetho. UMongameli usebenza njengoMphathi-mikhosi wemikhosi exhobileyo, eqhuba inkqubo yangaphandle, kwaye ejonge abasemaqulwini bamazwe angaphandle. Ukuthintela ukuphamba abalawuli abaphezulu, umGaqo-siseko unika iBhunga igunya lokulawula umongameli kunye noninzi lwabathathi-nxaxheba, ukujija uMongameli “oMphathiswa noMkhosi oPhakamileyo,” nokugatya ii-awula.

Amandla olawulo akhoyo athe anda ngokuphawulekayo ngoorhulumente, ngemiyalelo yezolawulo, nangezindululo zongxamiseko. Nangona ezi zixhobo zinokuba luncedo ekulawuleni, zikwabeka ubomi obungaphaya kweqhinga lomthetho. Umgaqo wokwahlula amagunya ufuna ukuba ulwahlulo olunjalo lufanele luhlolwe kwaye lujoliswe kwimithetho.

Isebe Lezeejaji: Igadi yoBugqeba bomGaqo-siseko

Isebe eligwebayo lichaza imithetho kwaye liqinisekisa ukuba iyavumelana nomgaqo-siseko. Ngamandla ohlolo lwezomthetho, amiselwe kwimeko yephawu Marbury v. Madison (1803), iinkundla zingabetha imithetho okanye izenzo ezilawulayo ezichasene namalungiselelo omgaqo-siseko. Eli gunya linguvavanyo oluphambili lwejaji kwamanye amasebe. Abagwebi abalungelelani bamiselwe ubomi, balukhusela kwingcinezelo yezobupolitika kwaye bavumele ukuba benze izigqibo ezingakhethi.

Iinkundla zikwacombulula iimpikiswano phakathi kwamasebe naphakathi kwamazwe, zigcina umthetho, zikhusela amalungelo omntu ngamnye. Noko ke, ijaji ixhomekeke kwisebe elilawulayo ukunyanzelisa imithetho yalo kunye neBhunga ukuxhasa imisebenzi yalo.

Iingqinipho - bume Nokulungelelana Okuqheliselwayo

Iingqinipho kunye nolungelelwaniso lubuchule obusebenzayo obubangela ukwahlukana kwamandla kusebenze. Asiyomigaqo engekho ngqiqweni kodwa zizixhobo eziqinileyo ezisetyenziswa mihla le ekulawuleni. Imizekelo engundoqo iquka:

  • [[NTL: 0] Igunya le-Veto: UMongameli angawuchasa umthetho, kodwa iBhunga lingawugqitha u-veto ngevoti yesithathu ezimbini kumagumbi omabini. Le mikhosi ithethana kwaye ilalanisa.
  • Indlu ingamtyumza uMongameli, abagwebi, okanye abanye amagosa karhulumente “ngesizathu, ukunyoba, okanye ezinye ii-Crimers eziphezulu kunye nezisemgqomeni.” IBhunga lilungisa ityala kwaye linokususa amagosa ngevoti ezimbini. Le nkqubo yasetyenziswa ngokuchasene noMongameli uAndrew Johnson, uBill Clinton, noDonald Trump, nangona nguJohnson noClinton kuphela abagwebi.
  • Ukuqinisekisa: UMongameli ubeka abagwebi besizwe, oonobhala bobukhabhathi, kunye noonozakuzaku, kodwa iNdlu yeeNgwevu kufuneka ibaqinisekise. Oku kunika isebe lowiso-mthetho ilizwi kumalungiselelo aphetheyo.
  • [[NTLT: 0] Impinda yemfundo: Inkundla ePhakamileyo ingavakalisa imithetho engekho simini, njengokuba yayinjalo kwi Brown v. Ibhodi yemfundo (1954) kunye ne-Obergefell v. Hodges (2011). Eli gunya liyinyanise kuyo yomibutho yowiso yomibini yowiso kunye nomphathi-matshi.
  • [[UMTL:0] I-Advice kunye nesivumelwano: Indlu yemibutho kufuneka ivume izivumelwano zabaninzi ababini-3, iqinisekisa ukuba ukuzinikela kwezizwe ngezizwe kubonisa inkxaso ebanzi.
  • [[Ulawulo lolawulo lolawulo oluphezulu: 0] Iikomiti ziphanda izenzo zolawulo, ukuva, nokukhupha iipona. Eli gunya longameli libalulekile ekutyhileni ukuziphatha okubi, njengokuba kubonwa ngexesha lokuchongwa kwamanzi.

Ezi nkqubo azinakuthintelwa. Ukuthatha indawo yenqanawa, ukubopha, nokuzibamba kwigunya eliphetheyo kungazityhafisa. Umzekelo, ubuninzi bemiyalelo yegunya lolawulo buye banda kumashumi eminyaka akutshanje, maxa wambi kuthintelwa iKhomishini. Ngokufanayo, ukusetyenziswa kocwangciso lwexesha lokuhlangana kunye nesenzo sokungangeni mazwe kunye norhwebo kubangele iingxoxo zokuqhathwa. Kodwa ke, isakhiwo sihlala siqinile xa abemi namaziko ekhuselwa ngokukhutheleyo.

Izifundo Zembali: Xa Ukwahlukana Kwamagunya Kusilela

Imbali inikela izilumkiso eziqatha ngemiphumo yokwahlukana kwamandla okuwohloka. Iziganeko eziliqela zibonisa indlela ukuphoswa okanye ukuncitshiswa kweecheketho ezinokukhokelela ngayo ekuphathweni ngurhulumente nasekuphulukeni kwenkululeko yabemi.

Imisebenzi YeAlien NeyeSedition (1798)

Idluliswa yiKhompisi elawulwa nguManyano-ntle kwaye yatyotyelwa nguMongameli John Adams, le mithetho yagxeka urhulumente ngokungekho mthethweni yaza yenza kwaba nzima ngabaphambukeli ukuba babe ngabemi. Ezi zenzo zabonwa ngokubanzi njengokusetyenziswa kakubi kwamandla ajoliswe ekupheliseni abachasi bezobupolitika. Unyulo lukawonke-wonke kunye nonyulo lukaThomas Jefferson lwalandelayo lwabonisa ukubaluleka kovavanyo olukhululekileyo lomatshini wokushicilela novota. IZenzo zaphelelwa okanye zarhoxiwa, kodwa zihlala ziluthelekelela ukukhotyo okungalawulwayo yinkundla egwetyiweyo (ngexesha eliqhelekileyo, iNkuNkulwa kweNkundla ePhakamileyo ayizange isombulula uHlukelo lokuHlamkelo lokuHlamkelo lokuHlambululwa kweMelwa).

Ukungenelela KwamaJapan (1942)

Ngexesha leMfazwe Yehlabathi II, uMongameli Franklin D. Roosevelt wakhupha uLungelelo loLawulo oluPhezulu luka-9066, egunyazisa ukufuduswa nokufakwa kwe-ase-Japhani emalunga ne-120 000 yama-U.INkundla ePhakamileyo yaxhasa inkqubo [ku- Koritatsu v. United States [19444] [i-FLT], ichaza ukukhuselwa kokhuseleko lwesizwe oluphetheyo. Ngoku eli tyala ligwetyelwe ngokuba kukusilela kolawulo lomthetho kwaye kuboniswa kwendlela uloyiko olunokuphelisa ngayo ukukhuselwa komgaqo-siseko. Kamva urhulumente wacela uxolo kwaye walungiselela iimvume zokulungisa, kodwa isiganeko sabonisa imfuneko yokuhlola ukurhwebela nakuhla.

IScangate yamanzi (1972-1974)

I-Watergate yaqala ngokuqhekeza kwikomkhulu leKomiti yesizwe yeDemocratic yaza yakhula yaba ngumsebenzi wokuxhatshazwa kwesebe eliphetheyo, kuquka ukuthintelwa kokusesikweni, ukugquma, nokusetyenziswa kakubi kwamaqumrhu angabantu abakrelekrele. Uphengululo lweNgqungquthela, lukhokelwa yiKomiti yeNtlanga-Mkhosi yamanzi, kunye nesigqibo seNkundla ePhakamileyo United States v. Nikon (1974) unyanzelisa ukhupho lwamangezo zoshicilelo, ukuchaphaza kobuposela. Uphazamiso lwe-mali, uMongameli uRichard Nixon.Greengate indlela ukujonga ngayo kunye nolwano lweziko-mthetho-mthetho-mthetho-overselder.[Fodkin]

Imizekelo yangoku: Imiyalelo enegunya nesenzo esingagqibekanga

Kumashumi eminyaka akutshanje, oomongameli bobabini basebenzisa imiyalelo elawulayo, umongameli wecawa, kunye nezibhengezo zokumisela inkqubo ngaphandle kwemvume yombutho. Umzekelo, ukuvalwa kolawulo lweTrump kujongene neengxaki ezininzi ezisemthethweni kumazwe akwizithintelo, kodwa ekugqibeleni iNkundla ePhakamileyo yaxhasa uhlobo oluhlaziyiweyo kucwangciso lweNkundla yezoburhulumente . Hawaii (208). Abagxeki baphikisa ukuba ukuvalwa kolawulo lweziphathi-mthetho nokungathobeki mithetho yezomthetho. Ngokunjalo, iBden ibonelela inkqubo yokuhlawulela ityala yabafundi ekhankani kwiNkulelo olubalulekileyo [FLT: BBElven].[12] [123], abachaphazelela ingqwalathiso ngegunya elinjalo, ityala elingekho sigqeqeqeshini ngenxa yegunya elinjalo.

Imbono Yamazwe Ngamazwe Ngokwahlukana Kwamagunya

Ngoxa imodeli yase-U.S. inempembelelo, ezinye idemokhrasi ziye zaphuhlisa iindlela zazo zokwahlula igunya. UBukumkani bomZantsi, umzekelo, busebenza phantsi kwenkqubo yepalamente apho umphathi onegunya (iNkulumbuso kunye neKhabhinethi) ekhutshwayo kuninzi lwemithetho-mthetho. Akukho kwahlulwa okungqongqo ```Indideded', ukudityaniswa kwamagunya kukubonakaliswa, kungekhona sisiphene/ko kodwa kuxhomekeke kwisithethe esinamandla sobundilele obungekho nxaxheba kwinkonzo yamakhaya, umatshini wokushicilela okhululekileyo, kunye nenkundla ezimeleyo yephondo ye-UK, emiselwe ngo-2009, ayinakuphinda izenzo zomthetho kodwa ayinawo amandla okubetha phantsi kweZenzo (kuvakalisa ukuba azimeleyo ngokwamalungelo abantu).

ISiciko loMthetho waseJamani limisa irepublic yesizwe enozinzo olunamandla. INkundla yezomGaqo-siseko yeFederal inegunya elikhulu lokuhlola umthetho nesenzo solawulo oluphezulu, kwaye imithetho yayo iyabotshwa. IJamani ikwanevotelwa ngokwakhayo yokungathembani, nto leyo ethintela isekela-sekela ekususweni ngaphandle kokuba ilandela inyulwe ngoko nangoko, ukongeza ukuzinza. Inkqubo yezolawulo yeFransi eyahlula amandla aphezulu phakathi komongameli nomlungiseleli oyintloko, kunye neBhunga loMgaqo-siseko ukuze kuhlolisiswe imithetho. Le ngcamango ingundoqo ibonakalisa ukuba isiseko sokuhlola igunya linokuhlazinziswa ngoko nangoko, inokwenziwa kumasiko ahlukene ezobupolitika.

Ukuthelekisa ezi nkqubo kubonakalisa ukuba akukho mzekelo ugqibeleleyo. Ulwahlulo olunempumelelo lwamandla luxhomekeke kungekuphela nje kwisakhiwo kodwa nakwimpucuko yobumthetho, iinkundla ezizimeleyo, kunye nebutho labantu abakhutheleyo. Amazwe apho ezi ziqalelo zibuthathaka khona.

Ucelomngeni Lwanamhlanje Nokuncipha Kweempembelelo Nolungelelwano

Phezu kwayo nje impumelelo yayo engokwembali, ukwahlukana kwamagunya kujongwa kwizisongelo eziphawulekayo zale mihla. Ukuthathi-nxaxheba kwezobupolitika kuye kwaqinisa ucalucalulo, kwenza kube nzima ngeNkqutyana ukuba ifezekise indima yayo yokuvelela. Xa iqela elinye lilawula ubucukubhedengu kunye neBhunga lowiso-mthetho, iimviwo zowiso-mthetho zidla ngobuthathaka, njengokuba kuboniswa ngexesha lorhulumente elimanyeneyo. Ngokuchasene noko, urhulumente owahluleleneyo unakho ukukhokelela kwintyatya nenkxalabo, maxa wambi ukhuthaza oomongameli ukuba benze ngaphandle kwesizathu.

Ulwandiso lwezwe lolawulo lukwaphakamisa imingeni. Oku kuququzelelwa kwamandla kwisebe elinye lowiso-mthetho, eliphetheyo, kunye nemisebenzi yokugweba: babhala imimiselo (Asisi-legisi), bayinyanzelisa (iiAsi-excadentiase), kunye nenkxwaleko ye-antinti (ii-quasi-judial). Oku kuquququzelelwa kwamandla ngaphakathi kwisebe elinye kungadlula ii-chemo zesithethe. Iinkundla ziphinde zazichasa emva, kunye nesigqibo sakutshanje seNkuNkundla ePhakamileyo [[FLT:]] iWest Virginia v. [i-202]

Inkqubo yokumisa ikomiti ithe yaphazanyiswa kakhulu, namadabi aphembelela iNkundla ePhakamileyo aphelisa ukuthembeka kwabantu. Ukusetyenziswa kwe-monilbuster kwiNdlu yeNdlu yeeNtlanganiso nangezisongelo ezimathub' zokubeka “ingxelo” kuphakamisa inkxalabo ngokuzimela kwejaji. Okwangoku, ukusebenzisa kwesebe eliphetheyo amandla ongxamiseko, njengokuvakalisa ungxamiseko lwesizwe ukubuyisela imali (umzz., ngokomda), kuye kwavavanya imida yomthetho.

Ezi ngxaki zifuna ingqalelo eqhubekayo. Ukwahlulwa kwamagunya akuzinqumli; kuxhomekeke kwizithethe zomthetho, imizekelo esemthethweni, kunye nokuthenjiswa kwabemi ukuba basebenze. Njengokuba utshintsho lwemeko-bume yezobupolitika, inkqubo kufuneka ilungelelane ngoxa ihlala inyanisekile kwimigaqo yayo yokuseka.

Indima Yabemi Ekuxhaseni Ukwahlukana Kwamagunya

Abemi bangabameli abaphambili bolawulo lomgaqo-siseko. Abantu abanolwazi nabakhutheleyo bangathintela urhulumente ukuba aphathwe ngokubeka amagosa anyuliweyo abeke ityala kwaye akhusele imida yamaqumrhu. Izenzo ezingundoqo ziquka:

  • Ukukhetha kunyulo: ukukhetha abameli abahlonela ukwahlulwa kwamagunya nabakulungeleyo ukucel ’ umngeni isigqeba esiphetheyo okanye ugwebo lomthetho.
  • Ukuqonda indlela urhulumente asebenza ngayo, kuquka iindima zesebe ngalinye kunye neendlela zokuhlola kunye nolungelelwaniso. i-Nonpartan izibonelelo ezifana ne . Ikhonsotion Ancodion inikeza ukhokelo olunegunya.
  • Ukuthumela umatshini wokushicilela okhululekileyo: isebenza njenge-“ndawo yesine” ehlola nokubhenca ukusetyenziswa kakubi kwelizwe. I-Journal egubungela izigqibo zeNkundla Ephakamileyo, ulawulo lombutho, kunye nezenzo zempatho-mandla zinceda ukugcina uluntu lunolwazi.
  • Ukusetyenziswa kwemithetho efuna ukubonakala: njengoMthetho wenkululeko yolwazi (FOIA) kunye neemfuno ezivulekileyo zentlanganiso zinceda abemi ukuba bajonge imisebenzi karhulumente. Ukunyanzelisa imithetho yemilinganiselo yokuziphatha eyomelele ngakumbi kunye neemfuno zokutyhila kunciphisa umngcipheko wokuphamba okufihliweyo.
  • Ukuncedisa kwibutho labemi: Ingeniso, amaqela e-advocation, kunye nee-bar zingenza ifayile yemishwana ye-amicu kwiimeko zenkundla, ungeniselo lotshintsho, kwaye ufundise uluntu. Imizekelo yembali iquka i projekthi uJohn Adams projekti[[FLT:]] kunye ne Umbindi Wobuzwe wenani le-Libersion Union (ACLU)[FLT] ucek'umcingela ukuva okungekho mthethweni nokuchola.

Abahlali kufuneka bahlale bethandabuza izibheno zongxamiseko okanye ukhuseleko lwesizwe oluthethelela amandla okunikela ingqalelo. Ukusetyenziswa kwamaJaphani kunye neenkqubo zokuhlolwa kwasemva ko-9/11 kubonisa ukuba kwanolawulo-melo lunokuthatha inyathelo elibi. Ukulumka kwabemi yi-inshorensi engcono nxamnye nokukhukuliswa komGaqo-siseko.

Isiphelo

Ukwahlulwa kwamagunya asiyonto ekudala ikho kodwa sisakhiwo esiphilayo esimele silondolozwe kwaye sikhuselwe. Injongo yaso asikokwenza urhulumente asebenze kakuhle, kukwenza urhulumente akhuseleke. Ngokwahlula igunya phakathi kwamasebe anokuhlolana nokulinganisela, le nkqubo ithintela nayiphi na into ekhoyo ekuqokeleleni amandla okucinezela amalungelo azimeleyo. Ukusuka kumaxwebhu okukhanyiselwa kweMontesquieu ukuya kwiingxoxo zokwakha iConvention yezomGaqo-siseko, lo mgaqo unyamezele ngenxa yokuba iyasebenza.

Kanti isizukulwana ngasinye sijongene nezisongelo ezintsha: ukukhutshwa komququzeleli, ukulawulwa kwequmrhu, ukuphandwa kwetyala, okanye ukupheliswa kwemithetho. Uphando lwezenzo ze-Alien neSigqibo, i-internment, iWatergate, kunye nezenzo zesebe eliphetheyo zale mihla zisikhumbuza ukuba ukuphaphazela akupheli. Iinkqubo zokuhlola nokulinganisela zinamandla kuphela njengabantu namaziko asebenza kubo. Ummi ongenzi nto, umbutho osebenzayo, okanye iqumrhu lolawulo lweziko loburhulumente obuqhelekileyo lungasingela phantsi inkqubo yonke.

Ukuze kulondolozwe inkululeko, kufuneka siqonde ukwahlulwa kwamagunya kungeyongcamango engekho ngqiqweni kodwa njengesixhobo esisebenzisekayo sokuziphendulela. Ngokuhlala sinolwazi, sivota, sibandakanye nebutho lasekuhlaleni, kwaye sixhase amaqumrhu azimeleyo, abemi bayakwazi ukuqinisekisa ukuba lo mgaqo wesiseko uyaqhubeka ukhusela urhulumente ochukumisiweyo. Njengokuba uJames Madison wabhala kwi[FLT] Uluhlu-No.[FLT], ukuba abantu bebengalukho urhulumente oyimfuneko. Ukuba iingelosi bezingalawula abantu, hayi ulawulo lwangaphandle okanye lwangaphakathi kurhulumente lungaba luyimfuneko. Ukwahlulwa lwawo lwangaphandle lungahlala luyimfuneko.