Ukuqonda imida yegunya likarhulumente kungundoqo wokuba ngummi onolwazi. Kunika abantu amandla okuqaphela amalungelo abo, bafeze iimbopheleleko zabo, kwaye balondoloze ngenkuthalo imigaqo yedemokhrasi egcina igunya lilawulwa. Ngaphandle kolu lwazi, abemi basengozini yokubeka ulawulo kwabo basemagunyeni, ukuvumela ukurhoxiswa okuthe chu kwenkululeko echaza ibutho labantu abakhululekileyo. Oku kukhokelela ekuhloleni ngokupheleleyo igunya likarhulumente, imida yalo, amalungelo akhusela abantu, kunye namanyathelo asebenzayo abemi abanokuwathatha xa loo mithetho ivavanywa.

Ingcamango Yamandla Karhulumente

Amandla karhulumente abhekisela kwigunya elisemthethweni elinikwe amaziko ukuyila nokunyanzelisa imithetho, ukulawula ihambo, ukulungiselela iinkonzo zikawonke-wonke, nokugcina ucwangco. Eli gunya lisuka kwimvume yabalawulwa `a ingcamango esisiseko efakwe kwiSibhengezo senkululeko nesomGaqo-siseko. Amandla karhulumente akaphelelanga; akakho ukukhonza abantu, akakho ukuwalawula.

Izazi ngezobupolitika ezifana noJohn Locke kunye noMontesquieu zaphembelela ngokunzulu abalawuli baseMerika, abayila inkqubo enika amandla aneleyo okulawula ngokunempumelelo ngoxa begcina igunya elithe kratya ebantwini. Ingcamango yolawulo oluqhelekileyo ibambelele ekubeni amandla apheleleyo axhomekeke kubemi, kwaye urhulumente usebenzisa kuphela oko kunikwa lona.

Umthombo Wamandla Karhulumente

  • I-Constitualical Manday: UmGaqo-siseko wase-U.S. ubala amagunya athile anikwe urhulumente wezwe, ngelixa uLawulo lweSihlaziyo lweshumi lugcina onke amanye amagunya kumazwe okanye kubantu.
  • [[UMTL:0] Igunya lomfundisi: IiKhomyutha zinika imithetho edala abameli kwaye zigunyazisa izenzo phakathi komgaqo-siseko.
  • [[Umthetho:0] Imiyalelo ephumezekayo kunye neMimiselo yoLawulo: uMongameli kunye namaqumrhu karhulumente azalisekisa imithetho ngemiyalelo nangemimiselo, nangona le kufuneka ihlale kwimida yemithetho kunye neyomgaqo-siseko.
  • [[FUT:0] Isiqalo se-judicial: Iinkundla ezichaza imithetho kunye nomGaqo-siseko, ukubumba umlinganiselo osebenzayo wamandla karhulumente ngexesha.

Iintlobo Zamandla Karhulumente

  • Amandla aBalaseleyo: Igunya lokubhala, lokutshintsha, kunye nemithetho ephinda-phindiweyo. EUnited States, eli gunya linikwe kwiBhunga (Inkcazo I yomGaqo-siseko).
  • [[Umthetho:0] Amandla asebenzayo: Igunya lokunyanzelisa nokusebenzisa umthetho. Ibekwe nguMongameli kunye namaqumrhu karhulumente (Article II).
  • Amandla oMkhosi: Igunya lokuchaza imithetho, iimpikiswano ezingquzulaneyo, kunye nokuhlola ubugqeba bomgaqo-siseko wezenzo zikarhulumente (Article III).

Isiseko somGaqo-siseko kunye nezithintelo

UMgaqo-siseko ngumthetho ophakamileyo welizwe. Awuniki nje kuphela igunya likarhulumente kodwa ukwalinyanzela ngokucacileyo. Abalawuli, baluphapheleyo igunya elithe ngqo emva kolwazi lwabo phantsi kolawulo lweBritane, bakha imida emininzi yomlinganiselo kulo kanye urhulumente.

Ukwahlukana Kwamagunya

Amandla ahlulwe phakathi kwamasebe amathathu ahlukeneyo, ````e-legislative', abaphathi-macanga'',' kunye nezomthetho--"isebe ngalinye elinendawo yalo yegunya.' Akukho sebe linokusebenzisa yonke imisebenzi karhulumente. Oku kwahlula kuthintela naliphi na isebe ekulawuleni kwaye kufuna intsebenziswano kwizenzo ezinkulu, ezifana nokudlulisa imithetho okanye ukusungula imfazwe.

Umanyano

UMgaqo-siseko wahlula igunya phakathi korhulumente wesizwe noorhulumente besizwe. Olu lawulo lubini luthetha ukuba urhulumente wesizwe unawo kuphela loo magunya adweliswe kumGaqo-siseko (umz., ukulawula urhwebo lwamazwe ngamazwe, ukuveliswa kwemali, ukuqhuba inkqubo yamanye amazwe). Amazwe anegunya elibanzi kwimimandla enjengemfundo, umthetho wolwaphulo-mthetho, kunye nokusetyenziswa komhlaba, phantsi kwemida yomthetho wesizwe. UMthetho weSihlaziyo weshumi oMgalelo uqinisa ukuba amandla anganikwanga mazwe aseUnited States agcinelwe okanye abantu.

Isiqinisekiso Samalungelo

Izindululo zokuqala ezilishumi zoMgaqo-siseko, zongezwa ngowe-1791, zichaza inkululeko ekhethekileyo umntu ngamnye urhulumente angenakuyiphazamisa. Ezi ziquka inkululeko yokuthetha, yokushicilela, yonqulo, yengqungquthela, neyesibongozo (Uhlaziyo Lokuqala); ilungelo lokuthwala iingalo (Uhlaziyo loMphengululo); ukukhusela ukuphengululwa okungekho ngqiqweni nokuxhwaleka (Umphetho weNkqumrhu); namalungelo ezingcali zolwaphulo-mthetho (uMthethweno-mthetho, iSithandathu, kunye neziHlulo-Mbeko zesibhozo). IBhili yamaLungelo isebenza njengomqobo ekuchaseni urhulumente.

" Amandla awanikwanga iUnited States ngumGaqo-siseko, okanye awalelwe nguwo eUnited States, agcinwe eUnited States ngokulandelelanayo, okanye kubantu. — IsiHlaziselo seTenteth [

Iingqikelelo Nolungelelwano Olusebenzayo

Inkqubo yokuhlola nokulungelelana inika isebe ngalinye iindlela zokulinganisela amagunya amanye amabini. Oku kuqinisekisa ukuba akukho sebe lilawulayo kakhulu kwaye inyathelo likarhulumente lihlala linetyala kumaziko amaninzi anegunya.

Ingqwalasela yoMthetho kwiSebe eliphetheyo neSikolo

  • O ukungananzi kweVto: Congress ingagqithisa ityala phezu kweveto engumongameli kunye namaninzi amabini anesithathu kumagumbi omabini.
  • [[Umthetho:0] Indlu ingawahlutha amagosa karhulumente (kuquka uMongameli kunye nabagwebi) ukwenzela "ulwaphulo-mthetho oluphezulu kunye neMisdemears"; iBhunga liqhuba ukuchotshelwa kwetyala kwaye linako ukuwasusa ngevoti yesithathu.
  • I-Advice kunye neNkqutyana: INdlu yeNtsimbi iqinisekisa ukutyunjwa komongameli (amalungu ecabinet, iijaji zezwe lonke, ii-amirario) kwaye iqinisekisa izivumelwano.
  • Amandla avuthuzayo: Congress ilawula inkcitho karhulumente kwaye inokuthi ilahle amanyathelo okulawula anyusiweyo.
  • Isakhiwo sekomkhulu: iKompola-ntle yenza iinkundla ezisezantsi zephondo kwaye imisela igunya layo, nangona ingenakuyiphelisa iNkundla ePhakamileyo.

Icandelo elilawulayo lihlola iMithetho neSikolo

  • [[UMTL: 0] Ulawulo: UMongameli angalwamkela umthetho odluliswa yiBhunga, enyanzelisa ukuphinda ucinge kwakhona.
  • [[UMTL:0] Amandla ePrado: UMongameli angaxolela aze aphinde afumane iimpazamo zikarhulumente, anike itsheki kwijaji.
  • [[Umthetho:0] Ukuphumeza imithetho: UMongameli unengqiqo ekunyanzeleni imithetho, enokucotha okanye iguqule injongo yomthetho.
  • Isivumelwano saBagwebi: uMongameli ubeka abagwebi besizwe, ebumba ukwenziwa kwengqiqo yejaji.

Ukuhlolisisa Umthetho Nolawulo

  • [[NTL: 0] Impinda yeJudicial:[ Iinkundla zingavakalisa imithetho engavumelaniyo (emiselwe ku Marbury v. Madison, 1803]).
  • Ufako lwemithetho: lwamatyala achaza intsingiselo yemithetho, enokuchaphazela inkqubo nobungakanani bayo.
  • Ukujongwa kwezenzo zolawulo: Iinkundla zingabetha imiyalelo yegunya eliphetheyo okanye izenzo zombutho ezigqitha igunya lomgaqo-siseko okanye lomthetho-siseko.

Le nkqubo ayifezekanga ```ipolitiki ekwimimandla engaphandle kwecawa neyamacandelo e-grid lock ingayitsalela phantsi/kodwa ihlala ingundoqo ekuzikhuseleni ekuzifumaneni amandla angathintelwanga.

Indima Yabemi Kwidemokhrasi

Irepublic esempilweni ifuna ukuba abemi abatshate. Ukungamkeleki kwegunya likarhulumente kumema ukuba baphangwe; ukuba nenxaxheba ngenkuthalo kuqinisekisa ukuba baya kuphendula. Abaseki bakholelwa ukuba uphando olupheleleyo kurhulumente kukuphaphanyiswa kwabantu.

Ukusasaza

Ukuncoma yeyona ndlela ithe ngqo abahlali abaphembelela ngayo urhulumente. Kumgangatho woluntu, wesizwe, wonyulo lugqiba ukuba ngubani obamba isikhundla kunye nemigaqo elandelwayo. Abami kufuneka bavote kungekuphela nje kunyulo oluphezulu lwepropati yomongameli kodwa kwakhona nakwiintlalo eziphantsi zeBhunga, iindlu zowiso-mthetho, iinqanawa zokwahlulela, neebhodi zesikolo. Umvoti urhoxisa umhlange osuka kude kunyulo olweminyaka edlulileyo uvumela izilangazelelo ezikhethekileyo ukuba zilawule, nto leyo ekhokelela kwimigaqo enokuthi ingabonisi uluntu ukuba lubonise umnqweno wokwabanzi.

Ukuncedisana

Ngaphandle kokuvota, abemi bangadibana namaqela asebenza ngokusemthethweni, abakho kwiintlanganiso zedolophu, ababhalela amagosa anyuliweyo iileta, bathabathe inxaxheba kwimiboniso yoxolo. Iintlangano ezinjenge- iSivinitimente soMbutho weSizwe [ACLU], Isizathu sokuchola, [[FLT] i-CM], i-CMPAR [, kunye neZiko lobuzwe leJalathi yeJalathi yeJaji [[FLT: 4, Brenan] iziko logwebo zobuGaqo lisebenza ukukhusela amalungelo okuvola, ukubonakala, imiqathango, kunye nemiqathango esemthethweni emandla. Abami baseluleki banokuxhasa okanye bathelele okanye bathelele ilizwi labo.

Ukuhlala Unolwazi

Abemi abanolwazi bangowona khuselo lulungileyo nxamnye norhulumente ophathwe kakubi. Oku kuthetha ukuchithwa kweendaba ezivela kwimithombo eyahlukeneyo, ethembekileyo, ukuqonda umthetho wangoku, nokwazi umGaqo-siseko. Ubuncwane bemfundo obufana ne- Constitution Anutition [ [ukusuka kwiThala leencwadi zeBhunga loMbutho] inikela iinkcukacha ezineenkcukacha zerifashonini nganye. Ingineze ifanele ihlolisise iinkqubo zobuchophelo lukarhulumente, imiyalelo yegunya, kunye nezindululo zikaxakeka.

Ukuqonda Amalungelo Omntu Ngamnye

Ulwazi ngamalungelo lubalulekile ekuqondeni xa urhulumente egqithisa imida yakhe. IBhili yamaLungelo kunye nokulungisa okulandelayo (kuquka inkqubo efunekayo yeGawulayo leshumi elinesine kunye nezigwebo ezilinganayo zokhuseleko) ichaza isangqa senkululeko yobuqu urhulumente amele ayihlonele.

Inkululeko Yokuqala Yokwenziwa Kohlaziyo

  • [[UMTL: 0] Inkululeko yokuthetha: ikhusela ukubonakaliswa kweengcamango, kwanezo zingathandwayo, ekuhlolisisweni kweliso likarhulumente. Noko ke, asizizo zonke iintetho ezikhuselweyo (umz., ukuphembelela kugonyamelo, ukunyeliswa).
  • Inkululeko yePress: iqinisekisa ukuba ijelo-lwazi lingaxela ngezenzo zikarhulumente ngaphandle kokuthintelwa kwangaphambili, kuvumela uluntu ukuba lugcine amagosa etyala.
  • Inkululeko yonqulo: Ichaza umiselo lukarhulumente wonqulo kwaye ikhusela ukuqheliselwa ngokukhululekileyo kokholo.
  • [[UMTL:0] Ekunene kwi-Assong and Prevention: ukhusela amandla okuhlanganisa ngoxolo nokufuna izilungiso kurhulumente.

Ilungelo Lokuba Wedwa

Ngeli xesha igama elithi "privcy" lingaveli kumGaqo-siseko, iNkundla ePhakamileyo iyavuma ukuba liphangalele ilungelo lokuzimela wedwa elivela kwiMithetho yokuqala, yesithathu, yesine, yesihlanu, neyeSihlanu. Eli lungelo likhusela ekungeneleni okungekho ngqiqweni koburhulumente kubomi bobuqu, kuquka kwiindawo ezinjengokuvelisa, umtshato, nezigqibo zezamayeza. ULawulo lwesine loMbeko lugada ngokukhethekileyo ukuba lungaphandi ngokungekho ngqiqweqweni nokuxwa, lufuna isiqinisekiso esisekelwe kwisizathu esifanelekileyo.

Indlela Efanelekileyo Yokuqhuba Nokunyanga Ngobulungisa

IziHlanziso zesihlanu nezeshumi elinesine ziqinisekisa ukuba akukho mntu uya "kuphelelwa bubomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla, ngaphandle kwenkqubo efanelekileyo yomthetho" oku kuquka zombini iinkqubo ezifunekayo (iinkqubo zenqwelo-moya, isaziso, nokuva) kunye nenkqubo efunekayo (ukukhuselwa kwisenzo soburhulumente esizimeleyo). UHlaziyo lweSithandathu luqinisekisa amalungelo kwimiqathango yolwaphulo-mthetho: ukuvavanywa kwetyala okukhawulezileyo neyasekuhlaleni, ijaji engakhethi tyala, ilungelo lokucebisana namangqina.

Ukubona Ukuba Ulawulo Olugqithiseleyo Kurhulumente

Urhulumente uphanda xa abasemagunyeni besenza okungaphaya kwemiqathango yabo yomgaqo-siseko okanye imithetho, ngokufuthi bezenza ngathi bakhuselekile, banempilo-ntle okanye baswele ungxamiseko.

Imizekelo Yembali

  • [[FLT: 0] Imisebenzi ye-Alien kunye neSikhundla (1798): Wagunyazisa urhulumente ukuvalela okanye ukugxotha ii-asethi ezithiwa "ziyingozi" kunye nokugxekwa komthetho karhulumente. Ezi zenzo zaphelelwa okanye zaphinda zagqitywa emva kokuphindwa kukawonke-wonke.
  • [[NTL:0] IsiJaphan American Internament (194219496): Phantsi koLuyalelo loLawulo oluPhezulu 9066, ngaphezu kwe-120 000 yamaJaphani ase-Melika anyanzelwa ukuba athunyelwe kwiinkampu ngexesha leMfazwe Yehlabathi II, nangona kwakungekho bungqina bokungathembeki. INkundla ePhakamileyo kamva yavuma ukwaphulwa kwenkululeko yabemi.
  • USUSA PATRIOT Act (2001): Amandla ophando karhulumente awenziweyo, kuquka ukurhuqa okungenasizathu kunye nokufikelela kwiirekhodi zobuqu, ukuqhushumbisa okuqhubekayo ngengxoxo yokhuseleko lwesizwe- v ss-sbuni.

Izinto Ezixhalabisayo Zale Mihla

  • Ubuninzi obungaphezulu bobungalinganiyo bobunyani obuye batyhilwa nguEdward Snowden. Ngelixesha utshintsho kamva lusikelwe imiqokelelo emikhulu, inkxalabo iyaqhubeka ngokukhangelwa okungenagunya phantsi kwecandelo 702 loMthetho wobuGcisa bamazwe angaphandle.
  • [[[Umthetho:0] Imiqathango ephumezekayo yokwandisa iGunya: Abameli baye basebenzisa ngokuqhubekayo imiyalelo yegunya ukumisela inkqubo ngaphandle kwemvume yequmrhu, bephakamisa imibuzo malunga nemida yamandla alawulayo.
  • [ Amandla alawulekayo okuxhatshazwa: UMthetho wesizwe uvumela oomongameli ukuba bavakalise iimeko zongxamiseko nokuvula amandla akhethekileyo; abagxeki baphikisa ngokuthi eligunya lisetyenziswe ukwenzela iinjongo zenkqubo ezingahambelaniyo nongxamiseko lokwenene.
  • Uxinzelelo lokungavumelani:[ Kwezinye iimeko, ukunyanzeliswa komthetho kuye kwasebenzisa iindlela zokulawula isihlwele ezithintela ukuqhankqalaza koxolo, kunye nokujongwa kwamaqumrhu onxibelelwano olunxulumene noluntu ngamasebe karhulumente kunyusa amaxhala oLawulo lokuqala.

Imiqondiso yokufikelela okugqithiseleyo

  • Unyuso lwesixhobo sokulinganisa isantya senqanawa: uHlololo ngaphandle kokukrokrela okungalinganiyo okanye ulawulo lwetyala.
  • Ingxaki engekho mthethweni: ubambe abantu ngaphandle kwentlawulo, ngaphandle konikezelo kwicebo, okanye usebenzisa uvalelo olungagqibekanga.
  • Uxinzelelo lodaniso: Usebenzisa imithetho ukujolisa abachasi bezobupolitika, abavukeli, okanye intatheli.
  • [[UMTL:0] Imiyalelo yezeejaji egwetywayo: izigwebo zenkundla ezigwetywayo okanye ukungaphumeleli ukuthobela amapenayi.
  • [[Umthetho:0] Imithetho egqithiseleyo: Imithetho enika amagosa ubulumko obuphangaleleyo ingasetyenziswa ngokukhethayo nxamnye namaqela angamkelekanga.

Indlela Yokusabela Kulawulo Olungaphezu Kolwamagunya Karhulumente

Xa abemi besazi ukuba baphangiwe, banezixhobo zokubuyisa ulungelelwano lomgaqo-siseko. Ukuphendula ngokunempumelelo kufuna ukuba umntu ngamnye asebenze, alungelelanise kunye nocwangciso olungokwasemthethweni.

Abameli Abaqanjisiweyo

Abaququzeleli bangabiza, bafumane i-imeyili, okanye badibane namalungu abo eBhunga kunye nabamisi-mthetho bakarhulumente. Kucacile ukuba uyicacisa kakuhle inkxalabo, icaphula imithetho ethile okanye izenzo, kunye nokucela ukuva ulwalathiso okanye umthetho wokulungisa. Kwanomqulu omncinane wonxulumano olunolwazi ungaphembelela ukuma kommeli.

Isenzo sasemthethweni novuselelo

Imibutho yenkululeko yamakhaya isoloko icela urhulumente ukuba acel ’ umngeni izenzo ezingekho mgaqweni. Abami bangaxhasa amatyala anjalo ngemali okanye, ukuba bachaphazelekayo, bajoyina njengee-partiff. Imithetho ifana . I-Capper v.Amnesty International[ (2017]) kunye ACLUV v. NA[FLT][FLT][FLT] ivavanye ukuvavanya iinkqubo zokuhlola iimbono zobuchophelo. Inkundla ePhakamileyo i-ANQUMTS. [ikhulu:]FLT] FC.[125]

Ukuqhatha Ngoxolo Nemfundo Kawonke - wonke

Imiboniso, umngcelele, kunye nokufundisa ukwazisa uluntu nokwandisa ingcinezelo yezobupolitika. Umbutho we-Occupe, Black Live Matter, kunye noMatshi Womfazi wabonisa indlela ukuqokelela intsebenziswano okunganyanzela ngayo ukuba kucetywe ucwangciso lwesizwe. Noko ke, lusoloko lunexesha elililo; ugonyamelo luthoba umlinganiselo ofanelekileyo kwaye lumema urhulumente othe chatha.

Inkxaso yemibutho yababoniseli kunye nezixhobo zobugcisa

Amaqela afana ne ACLU, e-Electronic Foundation (EFF), kunye neprojekthi kuRhulumente Ongaphezulu (POGO) ajonga izenzo zikarhulumente kwaye axhase ukubonakala. I-jenali ye- Independent kunye nezivuli-mpendululi (umz., i Pentagon Papers, i-Snowden Recordies) inika ulwazi olubalulekileyo abemi balufuna ukuba noxanduva.

Wazi Amalungelo Akho Uze Uwachaze

Ukuba bajoliswe kumthetho onyanzelisayo, abemi kufuneka bawazi amalungelo abo: ilungelo lokuthula, ilungelo lokungathethi, nelungelo lokungavumi ukuphengulula. Ukuba nenzolo, isidima, kunye nokuzimela kungathintela ukukhutshwa kwemiqathango esemthethweni. Iintlangano ezifana ne-ACLU zinika "amakhadi okuzibamba" kunye nezikhokelo kwiimeko ezithile.

Isiphelo

Imida yamandla karhulumente ayimi ndawonye okanye azinyanzelisi. Bafuna ukuphaphanyiswa okuqhubekayo kulwazi olunzulu nolusebenzayo lobumi. Ngokuqonda isiseko somthetho-siseko, ukuqonda iimpawu zobugqwirha, nokwazi indlela yokusabela ngokunempumelelo, abantu banokuphumeza indima yabo njengabameli abapheleleyo benkululeko. idemokhrasi asingomdlalo ojongileyo /imfuno yokuthathi-nxaxheba, ukuncina ingxina inxaxheba, kwaye ngamanye amaxesha. Kwixesha lolawulo oluphezulu oluthe kratya, ukuchola okusasazekileyo, kunye nokuhlaza, ubizo lomsebenzi wezentlalo akuzange nanini nanini nanini nanini nanini nanini nanini nanini nanini na lungxamisekile. Ukunikwa kolwazi, abemi banokuqinisekisa ukuba urhulumente ahlale engumkhonzi, hayi inkosi yabantu abakhululekileyo.