Liyintoni Isebe Eligwebayo?

Isebe lejaji limi njengentsika yesithathu karhulumente, elilingana namasebe aphetheyo kunye nemithetho. Indima yalo ephambili kukutolika imimiselo, iimbambano eziziimpikiswano, nokuqinisekisa ukuba imithetho isetyenziswa ngokungaguqukiyo nangokungakhethiyo. Ngaphandle kwemithetho eqinileyo nezimeleyo, umthetho uya kudodobala, kwaye amalungelo omntu ngamnye aya kungabi nakhuseleko oluthembekileyo. Isebe lezomthetho lilungiselela inkqubo yokucombulula iingxaki ngoxolo, ukuhlola urhulumente ochukumileyo, nokuxhasa imigaqo yesiseko. Ukuqonda isiseko salo, iinkqubo, amaxabiso azimeleyo, azimeleyo, azimele, amaxabiso esiseko abaluleke kakhulu kuye nabani na ofuna ukuqonda indlela esebenza ngayo idemokhrasi ekusebenzeni.

Isebe eligwebayo lisebenza kumanqanaba orhulumente orhulumente, ngalinye lilawulwa ngokwalo. Iinkundla zoManyano zisingatha amatyala abandakanya umGaqo-siseko wase-United States, imithetho karhulumente, izivumelwano, kunye neembambano phakathi kwamazwe okanye abemi bamazwe awahlukeneyo. Iinkundla zeli lizwe zilawula imicimbi emininzi engokwasemthethweni, kuquka iinkundla zolwaphulo-mthetho, umthetho wentsapho, ii-zivumelwano, kunye neengxabano zempahla.

Isakhiwo Sesebe Eligwebayo

Inkqubo yokugweba yaseMerika ingumlawuli, yenzelwe ukuqinisekisa ukucaciswa okungaguquguqukiyo komthetho ngeli xesha ivumela izibheno. Kumgangatho worhulumente, isakhiwo sineethala ezintathu ezingundoqo: iNkundla ePhakamileyo, iiNkundla zesiphaluka zezibheno, kunye neeNkundla zeSithili. Iinkqubo zenkundla zeSithili zibonisa le nqanaba kodwa zahluka ngokwamagama nentlangano ethile.

INkundla Ephakamileyo yaseUnited States

INkundla ePhakamileyo yeyona nkundla iphakamileyo kwelo lizwe. Inegunya elipheleleyo kwimibuzo yomgaqo-siseko kunye nomthetho wesizwe. Iqwalaselwe liGatya III lomGaqo-siseko, iNkundla ngoku inamaJaji asithoba qha asisithoba , kunye namaJaji asibhozo aMalungayo. Amalungisa atyunjwa nguMongameli kwaye aqinisekiswe yiBhunga, esebenzela ukumiselwa kobomi bawo bonke ukuze bakhutshwe kwingcinezelo yezobupolitika. Le nkululeko iyimfuneko ekwenzeni izigqibo zokungakhethi kwimicimbi yengxabano.

INkundla iphulaphule inani elisikelwe umda lamatyala ngalinye, ngokubhekiselele kuma-70 ukuya kuma-80 amawaka ezicelo. Ikhetha amatyala aphakamisa imibuzo ebalulekileyo karhulumente, abandakanya imigaqo yesiphaluka engqubanayo, okanye imiba ekhoyo ebaluleke kakhulu kwilizwe. Izigqibo zenziwa ngevoti enkulu, kwaye kubhalwe izimvo ukucacisa ingqiqo esemthethweni. Isigqibo seNkundla siba ngumzekelo ongqongqo kuzo zonke iinkundla ezisezantsi.

Iinkundla Ezimanyeneyo

Ijaji yeSithili yephondo iquka 94 yeeNkundla zeSithili zase-U.S. ezisebenza njengeenkundla zamatyala eenkundla zorhulumente. Abagwebi besithili bongamela izigwebo zoluntu nezezaphuli-mthetho, ukumisa izibakala nokusebenzisa umthetho. Ityala leJury lenzeka kumatyala amaninzi eNkundla yeSithili. Ngaphezu kweeNkundla zeSithili kukho iiNkundla zeSithili ezili-13 zase-U. IiNkubheno zeZizibheno, eziququzelelwe kwiingingqi ezili-12 kunye neSithili seFederalathi. Ezi nkundla zihlola izigqibo zeSithilithili namaziko athile, zigxininisa iimpazamo ezingomthetho kunokuba ziphinde zibekwe izibakala.

Iinkundla ezikhethekileyo zemali zikwakho, njengeNkundla yeZizwe Ezihlukeneyo yaseUnited States, iNkundla yamatyala eUnited States, kunye neNkundla yerhafu yaseUnited States. Ezi zinto zisingatha imibandela ethile, zinika ubuchule nempumelelo.

Iinkundla Zelizwe

Urhulumente ngamnye ugcina inkqubo yakhe yenkundla, equka iinkundla ezimangalelwayo zolawulo olulinganiselweyo (umz., iindleko, iimfuno ezincinane) kunye neenkundla zamatyala ezilawula jikelele (ngokufuthi zibizwa ngokuba ziinkundla eziphakamileyo okanye eziziziziphambukeli). Izibheno ezivela kwiinkundla zokuvavanya ityala ziya kwiinkundla eziphakathi, kwaye izibheno ezingakumbi zisenokufikelela kwinkundla ephakamileyo yeli lizwe, ngokuqhelekileyo ezibizwa njengeNkundla ePhakamileyo. Iinkundla eziphakamileyo zelizwe zinegunya lokugqibela kwimicimbi yomthetho karhulumente, nangona inkundla ephakamileyo yezomgaqo-mthetho wesizwe isenokubhenele kwinkundla ye-U.S.

Abagwebi benkundla yephondo bakhethwa ngeendlela ezahlukeneyo: ukutyunjwa yirhuluneli, ukunconywa ngokhetho oluzinzileyo, okanye unyulo olunobuhlanga nolungelulo ukhetho. Olu mahluko lubonisa iindlela ezahlukeneyo zokulungelelanisa ukuzimela ngokwee-demokhrasi nokuziphendulela kolawulo-lwazi.

Indima YaBagwebi Nabagwebi

Abagwebi bangoonogada abaphambili kwisebe eligwebayo. Bongamela iinkundla, balawula kwiinkundla, bayalela, bamisele imithetho yejaji, baze bawise ityala. Imbopheleleko yabo kukusebenzisa umthetho ngobundilele, ngaphandle kobundilele okanye intsebenziswano. Ukungakhethi buso akungomnqweno nje kuphela; kuyimfuneko engokomGaqo-siseko nengokokuziphatha. Abagwebi bamele babeke ecaleni iinkolelo zabo neembono zezobupolitika xa benza izigqibo.

Idinga noBume

Abagwebi bamaPhondo, kuquka abagwebi beNkundla yeSithili, abagwebi beSiphakamiso, nabagwebi beNkundla ePhakamileyo, batyunjwa nguMongameli kwaye baqinisekiswa yiNdlu yeeNtlanganiso. Basebenza ngexesha lokuziphatha okuhle, okuthetha ubomi ngempumelelo ngaphandle kokuba bacetyiswe kwaye basuswe yiNkqutyana. Esi sakhiwo sayilwa ngabaseki benzelwe ukukhulula abagwebi kwiingcisi ezinxaxhiweyo zonyulo lonyulo kunye neempindezelo. Ngokuchasene noko, abagwebi bephondo basoloko bejamelene nonyulo okanye iivoti, ezinokubangela imbambano phakathi kobuzwelo nenkululeko. Uphando lubonise ukuba abagwebi abanyuliweyo bangaba ngabanenkathalo ngakumbi kwiimeko eziphezulu ezibandakanya ulwaphulo-mthetho okanye iimpikiswano zentlalo-ntle.

Intanda - bulumko Yezejaji

Abagwebi batolika imithetho kunye nomGaqo-siseko ngeelayiti ezahlukeneyo zentanda-bulumko. I-Extrarian, exhaswa nguJaji wamva uAntonin Scalia, iyavuma ukuba umbhalo womgaqo-siseko kufuneka uchazwe ngokwentsingiselo yawo ngexesha lokwandiswa. Indlela yomGaqo-siseko ophilayo, enxulumene neJaji William Brennan, iphikisa ukuba imigaqo yoMgaqo-siseko ebanzi ifanele ijike ngokutshintsha ngotshintsho lwezono-social. Ezinye iindlela ziquka ukubhalwa kombhalo (ukuqwalasela kwintsingiselo yombhalo oqhelekileyo) kunye ne-pragmatis (iziphumo ezibanzi). Ezi ntanda-bulumko ziphembeleko kwimicimbi ebandakanya ukuthetha ngenkululeko, amalungelo ekhululekileyo, ubuqu, namandla orhulumente. Ngoxa abagwebi belindeleke ukuba bangabi nacalucalucalucalucalu lulu, ukufikelela kwabo ngokungenamdlamkelo lwabo.

Inkqubo Yogwebo

Indlela elihamba ngayo ityala iquka amaqondo aliqela, enzelwe ukuqinisekisa ukuba kulungile kwaye kucokisekile. Le nkqubo iyahluka phakathi kwamatyala angokwabantu nawamatyala olwaphulo-mthetho, kodwa isiseko sawo sisafana.

Iindidi Zasekuhlaleni Nezaphuli - mthetho

Amatyala asekuhlaleni abandakanya iimbambano phakathi kwamaqela azimeleyo `abantu abangoomatiloshe, amashishini, okanye imibutho" engaphezulu kwemali, impahla, okanye amalungelo obuqu. Umphetho omntu ochaphazelekayo uzisa ityala, ufuna imbuyekezo okanye umyalelo. Amatyala olwaphulo-mthetho aziswa ngurhulumente (ukubulawa) nommangalelwa otyholwa ukwaphula umthetho. Umgangatho wokuqinisekisa uyahluka: kwiimeko zasekuhlaleni, ummangalelwa makangqine ngetyala lakhe ngo "oknanothanda ukulityalwa kwetyala" (ngokunokwenzeka ukuba akakho); kwiimeko zolwaphulo-mthetho, umtshutshisi kufuneka angqine ukuba unetyala "lo olusengqiqweni," ukugqweqwela ukrwelo oluphezulu."

Inyathelo 1: Ukukhalaza Okanye Ukusilela

Ityala loluntu liqala xa ityala lifakela isikhalazo nenkundla, lichaza izibakala kunye nezityholo ezingokwasemthethweni. Ummangalelwa uyanikwa yaye kufuneka aphendule, ngokuqhelekileyo ngokufaka impendulo okanye ngokuphembelela ukugxothwa. Kwityala lolwaphulo-mthetho, inkqubo iqala ngokumangalelwa lityala elikhulu lejaji okanye isimangalo setyala esibekwa ngumtshutshisi. Ummangalelwa ubekwa umthetho, uxelelwa, aze acele ukungena kwisingqiniso.

Inyathelo lesi-2: Inkqubela phambili yangaphambili

Phambi kokuchotshelwa kwetyala, inkundla ibamba iingqungquthela ukuze ilawule ityala. Ukuxilongwa kuvumela amacala omabini ukuba atshintshisane ngobungqina, athathe isiqinisekiso, kunye namaxwebhu okucela. Intshukumo zingagcinwa ukuze kulungiswe imibandela engokwasemthethweni . Ngokufana nokuthatha inyathelo lokucinezela ubungqina kumatyala olwaphulo-mthetho okanye ukuthatha inyathelo lokugweba ngokufutshane. Iimeko ezininzi ziyazinziswa okanye zigxothwe kweli qonga. Kwizikombolozo zolwaphulo-mthetho, ukucetyo luqhelekile: ummangalelwa ucela ityala elincinci elingunotyala ngenxa yesigwebo esilula.

Inyathelo 3: Kuvavanywe

Ukuba ityala alipheli, liqhubekela ekuchotshelweni. Kwityala labachopheli-tyala, ijaji imisa izibakala; ijaji igqiba imiba engokwasemthethweni. Icala ngalinye linikela iingxelo zokuvula, amangqina, ukwazisa, kunye neenguqulelo ezinqamlezayo. Emva kokuququzelela, ijaji ifundisa abachopheli-mthetho abasebenzayo. Ijaji ngoko iyayalela ityala ngoko ngoko kwaye ibuyisela isigqibo. Kwizikomvo zebhedri, ijaji yenza iindima zombini, isebenza njengendawo yokufumana inyani.

Inyathelo lesi-4: Izibheno

Iqela eliphulukana netyala linelungelo lokubhenela kwinkundla ephakamileyo. Izibheno aziyomimangaliso; zigxininisa kusini na kwiimpazamo zenkundla yamatyala ezachaphazele iziphumo. Iqela lezakhono lihlola ingxelo yokuvavanya, lifunde iziganeko ezibhalwe phantsi, lize live iimpikiswano zomlomo. Lisenokuqinisekisa, liphinde liphikise, okanye liphinde lililungise ityala elingephi. Kwimeko ezinqabileyo, eli tyala lingabhenela kwinkundla ephakamileyo yetyala okanye kwiNkundlalelo ePhakamileyo yase-U.

Inkqubo yesambuku isebenza njengendlela yokuhlola iinkundla zamatyala, iqinisekisa ukungaguquguquki ekutolikeni okungokwasemthethweni nasekulungiseni iimpazamo.

Imigaqo Yokungabi Nabulungisa Nokungakhethi Buso

Iintsika eziliqela zixhasa ukuthembeka kwesebe eligwebayo. ngaphandle kwale nkqubo, ukukholosa kwabantu ngecala kusenokuphela.

Impinda yezeejaji

Uhlolo lwezomthetho lugunyaziso lweenkundla lokuvakalisa izenzo zowiso-mthetho okanye zegunya elilawulayo ezichasene nomthetho-siseko. olumiselwe ku Marbury v. Madison (1803), eli gunya livumela ijaji ukuba ihlole amanye amasebe ize ikhusele umGaqo-siseko. Xa umthetho ungqubana nomGaqo-siseko, ngumsebenzi wejaji ukukutsho njalo nokungavumi ukunyanzelisa. Lo mgaqo ungundoqo ungundoqo kulwahlulo lwamagunya eMerika kwaye wamkelwa yi-demokhrasi emininzi ehlabathini lonke.

Uqhotyoshelo lwegama

I-Latin ukwenzela "ukuma ngokwezinto ezigqitywe," i-specisis yimfundiso yokuba iinkundla zifanele zilandele imizekelo yangaphambili. Oku kukhuthaza uzinzo, ukuxelwa kwangaphambili, kunye nokulingana komthetho. Iinkundla ezisezantsi zibotshelelwe ngezigqibo zeenkundla eziphakamileyo ekulawuleni kwazo. Inkundla ePhakamileyo ingabhukuqa imiqathango yayo, kodwa yenza njalo ngezizathu ezinyanzelisayo kuphela, njengaxa isigqibo sangaphambili singasebenzi okanye siphoxekile. Brown v. Ibhodi yemfundo (1196], elawula "Iqela kodwa elinganayo" imfundiso engenakusetyenziswa.[FLT:]

Ihambo YaBagwebi

Abagwebi abamanyeneyo bakhokelwa yiNdlela yokuziphatha yaBagwebi baseUnited States, emisela imilinganiselo yokuziphatha equka ukungakhethi, ukukhuthala, nokuphepha ukunganyaniseki. Abagwebi kufuneka bazibeke kwiimeko apho ukungakhethi kwabo kunokuthi kuthandabuzeke ngokusengqiqweni, umzekelo, ukuba banekhethe lobuqu, umdla wemali, okanye ulwalamano olusondeleyo neqela. Ingqungquthela yeJavani yooomasebe bomthetho, kwaye isenokubekwa nxamnye nabagwebi ngenxa yehambo engafanelekanga. Le khowudi, nangona ingenayo, ithwala amandla engqeqesho yezonyango.

Ukufikelela kukawonke-wonke kunye nokubonakala ngaphaya

Iinkundla zivulekele uwonke-wonke, yaye imicimbi ingumbandela ongokwasemgaqweni. UMthetho wokuqala wokuHlaziya uqinisekisa ilungelo lokuya kumatyala olwaphulo-mthetho, yaye lo mgaqo unwebe kwimbali ezininzi zamanani. Kwixesha lamanani, iinkundla ezininzi zinika unikezelo kwi-intanethi kwizibuko, iimbono, kunye nee-arhente. I-Public Accession to Court Electronic Records [PACR] [FLT] inkqubo evumela nabani na ukuba ajonge amaxwebhu enkundla esizwe. I-Transficiation iqinisekisa ukuba isigwebo asisenziwa emfihlekweni kwaye ihlala ithembekile kubantu.

Amatyala Ophawu Lwasezweni Nempembelelo Yawo

Izigqibo ezibonisa amandla eenkundla okukhusela amalungelo nokuvumelanisa umthetho neemeko eziguqukayo zibonisa indlela eliye layitshintsha ngayo isebe lezahlulelo laseMerika.

Brown v. ibhodi yemfundo (1954)

Kwesi sigqibo sangqinelanayo, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yathi ucalucalulo lobuhlanga kwizikolo zikawonke-wonke lwaphula umthetho iSikhuseli-mthetho esilinganayo sika-Claus seSinyusi se-14. INkundla yayala imfundiso "sohlukeneyo kodwa iyalingana", ivakalisa ukuba izikolo ezihluliweyo azilingani ngokwemvelo. Brown yakhuthaza umbutho wamalungelo abantu kwaye yakhokelela ekususweni kokwahlulwa komthetho osemthethweni ngaphaya kweUnited States. Ihlala ingomnye wemizekelo ebalulekileyo yezenzo zesebe lejaji egweba ekuhambiseleni phambili okusesikweni nokulingana.

Roe v. Wade (1973)

INkundla ePhakamileyo yavuma ilungelo elingokomGaqo-siseko lokuzimela ngasese elikhusela isigqibo somfazi sokuqhomfa, isenza silungelelanise nezilangazelelo zikarhulumente kwimpilo kamama kunye nobomi obunokwenzeka. Isigqibo savusa amashumi eminyaka empikiswano yezobupolitika neyomthetho. Ekugqibeleni sawiswa phantsi kwe- Dobs v. IJack’s Health Organization [[ [202], eyabuyisela imiqathango yokuqhomfa kumazwe. Ingxoxo ephakathi [FLT] [12] kunye [FLT:] ne[FLT:] I-Dobss [FLT:]] ibalase indima ekhoyo ye-judiary judiary kutoliaaa nakuhlulo olungundoqo.

Obergefell v. Hodges (2015)

Kumthetho ongowe-5-44, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yathi izibini ezitshatileyo ezingokwabelana ngesondo zinelungelo elisemthethweni lokutshata phantsi kweNkqubo elindelekileyo neSikhuseli sika-Celas. Isigqibo saphelisa uvalelo lorhulumente kumtshato omnye ongokwakwamanyana kulo lonke ilizwe. Saphawula uloyiso olukhulu lweLGBTQ+ amalungelo kwaye sabonisa indlela isebe eligweba elinokulukhusela ngayo amalungelo amancinane kwanaxa iziko ezinkulu zemithetho zithandabuza. Uluvo lukaMphathi-Jaji Anthony Kennedy lwagxininisa isidima sokhetho lobuqu kunye nokuqondwa kwenkululeko.

Ezi meko, kunye nezinye ezininzi, zigxininisa ubuchule bejaji bokuphendula imibuzo enzulu yentlalo. Isebe alisokusombulula nje kuphela iimpikiswano kodwa likwacacisa imilinganiselo yesizwe kwaye limisele imida kwamanye amasebe.

Indima Yesebe Eligwebayo Kulawulo - melo Nolawulo Lomthetho

Isebe lejaji libalulekile ekusebenzeni kwedemokhrasi yezomGaqo-siseko. Liqinisekisa ukuba akukho namnye, okanye oyena mphathi unamandla okanye oyena mkhulu kunawo wonke (_wokugqibela) ungaphezulu komthetho. Iinkundla zikhusela abantu kwizenzo zikarhulumente ezizimeleyo, inyanzelisa, kwaye zinika imvume yokuphelisa izigqibo zoxolo. Umgaqo wokuzimela geqe uqinisekisa ukuba abagwebi banokugqiba amatyala ngaphandle kokoyika imbuyekezo okanye ungoyiki.

Ngaphezu koko, ijaji isebenza njengengqwalasela kwiZiko leMigaqo-siseko neleeNkqutyana. Ngokuhlola kwezomthetho, iinkundla zingabetha imithetho echasene namalungelo omgaqo-siseko okanye egqitha amandla avunyiweyo. Le nkqubo yokuhlola nokulungelelanisa ithintela naliphi na isebe ekulawuleni nasekulondolozeni ukwahlulwa kwamagunya. iFEDALT] ibonelela ubuncwane obuninzi ngendlela olusebenza ngayo olu lungelelwaniso.

Ukuthembana kukawonke-wonke yeyona nto ixabisekileyo kwijaji. Xa abemi bekholelwa ukuba iinkundla zisesikweni kwaye azikhethi, bayasamkela isigwebo esingesihle baze bathobele imiyalelo yenkundla. Xa ukuthembana kuphele (ngokuba kubangelwa yimbono yokuzingca, ikhethe, okanye ukunganyaniseki), okanye ukuchanabeka-manani-manani). Yiyo loo nto imigaqo ebonakalisa ukuba mhlophe, imilinganiselo yokuziphatha, kunye nemigaqo yokuphendula iqhubeka iqiniswa.

Isiphelo

Isebe lejaji aliyondawo yokulungisa ityala. Lingumgcini-mGaqo-siseko, umkhuseli wamalungelo abantu, nomkhuseli wolawulo lwedemokhrasi. Ngokutolika imithetho, ukucombulula iimbambano, nokuhlola amandla karhulumente, iinkundla ziqinisekisa ukuba okusesikweni akuyonjongo nje ecacileyo kodwa yinto yokwenene yemihla ngemihla. Abafundi nabafundisi, abahlola isakhiwo, iinkqubo, nemigaqo yejaji, ikhuthaza uxabiso olunzulu ngendlela umthetho omi ngayo. Ukuqonda isebe lezahlulelo linika abemi amandla okubandakanye nemibandela engokomthetho, ukuthethelela ulawulo lwezomthetho. Njengoko uhlanga luqhubeka lusenza utshintsho, iinkundla ziya kuhlala kusekho inkundla apho imibuzo engundoqo yenkululeko, ukulingana, nokulunga nokugweba kuqulwa kunye nesigwebo.

Kwabo bafuna ukufunda okungakumbi, i-website engundoqo yeNkundla ePhakamileyo ye-United States inikela izimvo, iimpikiswano, kunye nezinto zokufundisa. U.S. iiNkundla zinika ubuncwane kwicandelo lejaji lesizwe, kuquka iingxelo zetyala kunye neengxelo zezibalo. Ezi zixhobo zinceda nabani na ukuba ahlole umsebenzi oqhubekayo wesebe lejaji.